
Class _S-P":9La 
Book..K\ 6 >^^ 
Copyright}!? 

CrOEHUGHT DEPOSIT. 



VETERINARY PRACTITIONERS' SERIES 

N O . 2 



SWINE PRACTICE 



BY 



A. T. KINSLEY, M. Sc, D. V. S. 

Author of Veterinary Pathology, 
Swine Diseases, Etc. 



[llustrated 



CHICAGO 

AMERICAN VETERINARY PUBLISHING COMPANY 

1921 



\ 






Copyright 

American Veterinary Publishing Co. 

1921 



FEB -? 1921 
g)ClA605699 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I. 

Gexeral Swine Management H 

Choice of Breed; Age for Mating; Selection of Herd Boar; The Brood Sow; 
Farrowing; Care of Stock Hogs— Success Depends on Feeding; Breeds of 
Swine — Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Berkshire, Chester White, Mule-Foot, 
Bacon Hogs, Hampshire, Taniworth, The Large Yorkshire; Feeds and Feed- 
ing—Feeding Requires Care and Judgment; Garbage Feeding; Sanitation— 
The Hog House Ventilation Necessary, Proper Drainage Essential, Value of^ 
Quarantine; General Diagnosis— History of Paramount Importance, Attitude'' 
of Animal, Diseases of the Skin, Congestion, Eczema, Temperature Variations, 
Examination of Heart and Pulse Rate, Diseases of Respiratorj- Organs, Nasal 
Discharge, Cough, Nature of Feed and Water Should Be Determined ; Diges- 
tive Disturbances, Uro-genital Disturbances; Nervous Disorders; Autopsy — 
Obtain Permission and Authority, The Subject for Autopsy, Equipment, Rec- 
ords, Technic; Resn-aint; Medication — The Hypodermic Syringe; Anesthesia 
— Indications, Anesthetics and Administration. 

CHAPTER II. 

Digestive System 63 

Anatomic Consideration — Mouth, Tongue, Salivary Glands, Teeth, Pharynx, 
Esophagus, Stomach, Intestine, Liver, Pancreas; Physiologic Consideration — 
Digestion; Mouth and Associated Parts; Lips — Malformations, Cheilitis, Tu- 
mors ; Tongue — Glossitis, Tumors, Parasites ; Mouth — Stomatitis, Epizootic 
Aphthae, Scurvy; Teeth; Parotid Glands; Tonsillitis; Pharynx — Pharyngitis, 
Paralysis, Tumors; Esophagus — Malformations, Stenosis, Dilatation, Perfora- 
tion, Esophagitis, Tumors ; Aberration of Appetite; Stomach — Malformation5, 
Foreign Bodies, Emesis, Anemia, Hematemesis, Peptic Ulcers, Hyperemia, 
Gastritis, Dilatation, Tumors, Parasites; Intestines — Malformations, Enter- 
orrhagia, Obstruction, Dilatation, Emphysema, Enteritis, Poisoning, Parasites, 
Tumors, Diarrhea, Constipation; Prolapse of the Anus and Rectum; Liver- — 
Malformations, Foreign Bodies, Rupture, Icterus, Cloudy Swelling, Fatty 
Changes, Amyloid Changes, Glycogenic Infiltration, Gall Stones (Cholethiasis), 
Hyperemia, Hepatitis, Tumors, Parasites, Pancreas; Peritoneum Injuries, 
Ascites, Peritonitis, Tumors, Parasites. 

CHAPTER III. 

Diseases of Respiratory Organs 146 

Anatomical Consideration — Respiration; Nose^ — Epistaxis, Catarrhal Rhinitis, 
Infectious Nasal Catarrh (Malignant Catarrh), Tumors; Larynx — Laryngitis, 
Tumors; Trachea — Malformations, Stenosis, Tracheitis, Tumors; Bronchial 
Tubes — Stenosis, Bronchitis, Bronchial and Puhnonary Strongylosis; Lungs 
- — Atelectasis, Emphysema, Edema, Hemorrhage, Pneumonia, Tumors, Para- 
sites; Pleura — Hydrothorax, Hemothorax, Pneumothorax, Pleurisy, Tumors; 
Spasms of the Diaphragm (Thumps). 

CHAPTER IV. 

ITro-Genital System 172 

Genital Organs — ^Boar, Sow, Mammary Secretions; Kidneys — Malformations, 
Hydronephrosis, Hemorrhage, Fatty Changes, Calculi, Congestion, Nephritis, 
Albuminuria, Uremia, Hematuria, Parasites, Tumors ; Ureters — Malforma- 
mations; Bladder — Malformations, Hemorrhage, Dilatation, Calculi, Cystitis, 
Tumors, LTrethra, Stricture Urethritis; Male Generative Organs — Prostate 
Gland, Bulbo-Urethral or Cowper's Glands; Testicles — Orchitis and Epi- 
didymitis, Tumors, Parasites, Penis; Female Reproductive Organs; Ovary — 
Malformations, Hemorrhage, Oophoritis, Cysts, Dermoid and Dentigerous 
Cysts, Tumors; Fallopian Tubes — Malformations; Uterus — Malformations, 
Injuries, Hemorrhage, Tumors; Vagina; Vulva; Mammary Glands — Mam- 
mitis. Tumors. 



CHAPTER V. 

Amohtiox , 20!> 

Prevalence; Susceptibility; Types of Abortion; Cause; Dissemination; Symp- 
toms; Treatment. 

CHAPTER VI. 
Stkuility 212 

Occurrence; Cause and Symptoms; Treatment; Retained Placenta and Me- 
tritis. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Anomalies axd Diseases of Youxg Pigs 214 

Persistent Uracluis; Atresia Ani; Omphalopblebitis, Pyemic Arthritis (Navel 
111); Rickets; Scour in Pigs; Pulmonary Ascaridiasis; Infectious Rhinitis 
(Bull-Nose or Sniffles); Stomatitis in Sucklings (Sore Mouth in Pigs). 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Oroaxs of IvOcomotiox 228 

Sore Feet; Fatty Changes in Muscle — Muscular Rheumatism, Articular Rheu- 
matism; Polyarthritis; Osteomalacia — Purulent Osteomyelitis; Trichinosis; 
Cysticercosis (Measles); Sarcosporidiosis; Tumors. 

CHAPTER IX. 

TiTE Skix , ?? 

Erythema; Sunburn; Freezing; Hemorrhage; Urticaria; Impetigo (Measles); 
Eczema; Dermatitis Granulosa; Necrol)acillosis, .Vctinomycosis; Tumors; 
Pigmented Mole; Parasites; Flea Infestation; Lousiness (Phthiriasis) : 
Mange; Tick Infestation; Thi'ead Worm Infestation; Ringworm Infestation. 

CHAPTER X. 

Circulatory Orgaxs 257 

Heart — Hemorrhage, Fatty Changes, Dilatation, Pericarditis, Tumors, Para- 
sites, Chronic Endocarditis; Blood- Vessels; Blood — Anemia, I>eukemia; Spleen 
— Necrosis, H\pertroph}', Tumors. 

CHAPTER XL 

The Nervous System 263 

Sunstroke and Heat Stroke; Lightning Stroke; Epilepsy; Eclampsia; Paral- 
ysis in Pigs; Chorea; Cerebral Hyperemia; Parasites. 

CHAPTER XII. 

Infectious Diseases 270 

Hog Cholera ; Serum Production — Location of Buildings, Construction of 
Buildings, Arrangement of Plant, Operation; Swine Plague, Hemorrhagic 
Septicemia; Infectious Necrotic Enteritis; Necrobacillosis — Necrotic Stoma- 
titis, Necrotic Enteritis, Necrotic Rhinitis, Necrotic Pneumonia, Necrotic 
Hepatitis, Necrotic Splenitis, Vaginal, Vulvar and Preputial Necrosis, Necrotic 
Dermatitis, Unusual Forms of Necro-Bacillosis; Paratyphoid Infection; Sal- 
monellosis; Malignant Edema; Anthrax (Charbon) ; Tuberculosis; Swine Ery- 
sipelas; Rabies; Foot and Mouth Disease (Aphthae Epizootlcae) ; Tetanus. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

SiRGEKY 344 

Castration — Age for Castration, Instnmients, Restraint, Technic, Care After 
Castration; Sequelae of Castration — Hemorrhage, Scirrhous Cord, Actinomy- 
cosis, Parasites, Botryoniyces, Scrotal Hernia; Spaying of Sows; Ablation 
of the Mammary Glands; Operation to Remove Swirls; Obstetrics — Age of 
Puberty and Estrum, Gestation Period, Anatomy of the Female Genital 
Organs; Parturition — Difficult Parturition Dystocia; Cesarean Section — Anes- 
thesia, Restraint, Instrmuents, Technic; Hysterotomy; Hysterectomy; Acci- 
dents of Pregnancy. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Farrowing House 14 

Interior of Farrowing House 15 

One-Sow Farrowing Houses 17 

Cesarean Section ; 18 

Small One-Way Self-Feeders 31 

Self-Feeders 32 

Self-Feeders 33 

Hog House : 38 

Hog House and Yards , 39 

Mississippi Hog House 40 

Swine Pasture ^ 43 

Dentition of Lower Jaw , 66 

Dentition of Upper Jaw , 66 

Dentition of 18-Months-Old Pig 67 

Dentition of Lower Jaw of 18-Months-Old Pig 67 

Stomach and Intestine 69 

Stomach and Intestine 70 

Exenterated Stomach, Intestine and Spleen 71 

Liver of Hog 72 

Liver Showing Lobules ; 73 

Glossitis 77 

Acute Gastritis 95 

Arteries and Lymph Glands in Intestines 102 

Mud Wallows ! 106 

Ascaris Suum 118 

Gigantorhynchus Hirudinaceous , 122 

Chronic Hepatitis 136 

Distoma Hepaticum 139 

Bronchial Tube of Hog With Lung Worms 155 

Hog I^ungs 160 

Catarrhal Pneumonia 162 

I>ung of Hog With Lung Worms ^ 167 

Testicles of Boar 175 

External and Internal Generative Organs of Sow 176 

Kidney of Swine 177 

Hemorrhagic Kidney 179 

Hvperemic Kidney 182 

Kidneys ,, 183 

Adeno-Sarcoma of the Kidney ^ 190 

Testicle of Ridgling Boar 196 

Infection of Mammarv Gland 203 

Rachitis " ,, 215 

Rachitis , 217 

Rachitis , 218 

Rachitis : 219 

Measle Worm 235 

Musculature of Hog With Measle Worms 235 

Pork Measle Worm 235 

Cystercosis 236 

Section of a Measly Tongue 237 

Section of a Measly Heart 238 

Pedunculated Fibroma 239 

Hog AflFected With Urticaria 243 

Elephantiasis ...246 

Pigmented Mole 247 

Male Hog Louse 249 



Female Hog Louse 249 

Sarcoptic Mange Mite 250 

Hog Mange , 261 

Hog Mange Showing Pedicle-Like Scabs 252 

Convenient Trough for Vaccinating 253 

Pig Affected With Follicular Mange 254 

Hog Wallow of Concrete 255 

Hog Heart With Echinococci 258 

Heart AVith Tuberculous Proliferations 259 

Spleen With Part of Gastrosplenic Ligament ,, 261 

Hog Cholera 271 

Acute Hog Cholera ,....272 

Heart Showing Tissue Hemorrhages 273 

Inflamed Atrium 274 

Mucous Membrane of the Intestine 275 

Lymph-Nodes ., 277 

Large Intestine of Hog ^ 279 

Large Intestine of Hog , 279 

Lungs Showing Attached Lymph Glands '. 281 

Head Showing Lymph Glands , 282 

Lymph Glands 287 

Mucous Membrane of Bladder ., 288 

Hog Cholera Carcasses 289 

Virus Bleeding Room 294 

Hyperimmunizing Room 296 

Serum Centrifuging Room 298 

Sterilizing Room 299 

Cholera Immune Hogs 301 

Hog Lungs With Chronic Swine Plague 303 

Pulmonary Mixed Infection-Catarrhal Pneumonia 305 

Group of Pigs 306 

Pigs Showing Various Symptoms 307 

Sick Hogs ^. 307 

Insanitary Conditions 309 

Necrotic Enteritis .310 

Diphtheritic Enteritis , 311 

Necrobacillosis 318 

Fat Necrosis ,. 323 

Bacillus Anthracis ,. 328 

Vertebral Tuberculosis in the Hog 331 

Tuberculosis of the Tongue 333 

Tuberculosis of the Skin 334 

Tuberculosis of the Pleura 336 

Proliferations on Heart Valves 338 

Bacillus Tetani ., 343 

Restraint of Large Boar for Castration 345 

Restraint for Castration 345 

Swine and Sheep Emasculator 346 

Holding Pig for Castration 347 

Actinomycosis 351 

Scirrhous Cord 352 

Multiple Abscesses in Boar .,. 354 

Restraint for Spaying 355 

Internal Genital Organs of Sow .,., 356 

Ablation of Mammary Gland 357 



PREFACE 

The increasing importance of the swine industry demands in- 
creased efficiency in swine practice, and this is briefly the reason 
for the publication of this book at this time. 

The original edition of "Swine Diseases" ihas been materially in- 
creased by the addition of chapters on the general care and manage- 
ment of swine, breeds of swine, surgical operations and obstetrics; 
in fact, the author has attempted to briefly and clearly describe all 
phases of the management and diseases of swine in such a way that 
the student of veterinary medicine, municipal, state and Bureau of 
Animal Industry veterinarians, and the veterinary practitioner will 
find it a valuable ready reference. Because of the detailed descrip- 
tion of methods of treatment it has been deemed advisable to change 
the title of the revised edition to "Swine Practice". 

The author has freely consulted the various textbooks, periodicals 
and experiment station publications, bearing upon the subject of 
management and diseases of swine. To his publisher, D. M. Camp- 
bell, the author desires to express his appreciation. 

A. T. Kinsley. 

Kansas City, Mo. 



CHAPTER I 

GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 

Care of Stock Hogs. Autopsy. 

Breeds of Swine. Restraint. 

Feeds and Feeding. ]\redieation. 

Sanitation. Anesthesia. 
General Diagnosis. 

Importance of Swine Industry 

SWINE raising has for many decades been a very important occu- 
pation in practically all civilized countries. The essential food 
that caused so much concern, because of its scarcity, during the 
recent world war was fat ; and pork is the chief source of that 

valuable product. 

The most intensive swine raising and feeding in the United States, 
have been largely confined to the great corn belt, but this may be 
changed in the future because of the splendid packing and trans- 
portation facilities and efficiently developed methods of immuniza- 
tion of swine against hog cholera and other swine diseases. Thus it 
is now possible to produce pigs in large numbers in sections of the 
country where insufficient grain is raised to finish the fattening, 
because these pigs can be sold at market centers, for a good profit 
to the producer, immunized and sent to the corn belt to farmers where 
they are full fed and marketed as fat hogs. 

Swine are sold for pork, feeders or breeding stock. The largest 
number of swine are sold for pork and this naturally includes those 
swine that were purchased as feeders. 

The number of breeding hogs has increased by leaps and bounds 
in recent years and the veterinary practitioner should familiarize 
himself with the problems concerned in the general management of 
swine. 

The advice a veterinarian gives to his client relative to problems 
in swine husbandry will necessarily vary according to location and 
will probably depend to some extent upon the local crop conditions. 
]\Iany farmers and ranchmen in the semi-arid sections of the country 
could produce feeder pigs at a profit and it should be the business 
of veterinarians to give information and even demonstrate the feasi- 
bility of such a i)lan. Veterinarians in the corn belt, on the other 



12 SWINE PRACTICE 

liand, will find the problems concerned in fattening- of hogs and the 
production of breeding- hogs of paramount importance. 

CHOICE OF BREED 

The breed of hog to be selected is a matter of personal choice with 
the breeder. In the middle west, the Poland China and Duroc-Jer- 
sey are the most popular breeds, although practically all breeds have 
their admirers. In recent years the demand for lighter hogs instead 
of the very fat animals that formerly topped the market has given 
great impetus to the raising of Hampshires and other semi-bacon 
types. 

Many breeders do not consider it necessary to use pure-bred sows 
in the production of market hogs. However, there seems to be no 
question among breeders but that pure-bred boars should be used. 
The grade sow and the pure-bred boar for the production of market 
hogs are especially favored by the breeders who are limited as to 
capital. It is also the usual procedure with beginners in the industry. 
The selection of the breeds is largely a matter of choice with the 
individual, although we find a great many that favor the pure-bred 
Poland China boar with the grade Duroc sow, but further investi- 
gation may show an equal number favoring the pure-bred Duroc 
boar and the grade Poland China sow. The desideratum is — good 
feeding qualities, early maturity and prolific females. 

Inhreeding is a question on which the veterinarian is frequently 
consulted. Inbreeding once removed is permissible, but continuous 
inbreeding is usually hazardous as weakly, deformed pigs are likely 
to result. 

Lin e-1) reeding is the mating of related animals that have descended 
from the same common ancestry. Thus, the defect of inbreeding 
may also appear in line breeding but by careful selection of the indi- 
vidual, line breeding has been found to be of value in emphasizing 
the good points of a particular strain of any breed of hogs. 

Gross-hreeding is the mating of pure-bred animals of different 
breeds. This breeding produces a thrifty and usually hardy type 
with the first cross but when continued further the progeny degen- 
erates to uncertain types, a large number being scrubs. 

Grade breeding is the mating of a pure-bred boar with grade sows. 
If grade breeding is continued sufficiently long, practically a pure- 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT ] 3 

bred herd can be established. However, this method of creating a 
pure-bred herd is objectionable because of the length of time required. 

AGE FOR MATING 

The age for mating animals is a question of considerable interest 
and importance, but from general observation it would appear that 
mature animals of about the same age generally produce best results. 
Frequent difficulties arise, particularly in farrowing, when young 
sows are mated with aged boars, and this should be avoided so far 
as possible. The mating of aged sows with young boars is attended 
with fair success, although a mature boar usually produces stronger 
pigs and a larger litter. 

The length of time to keep breeding animals is also an important 
question with breeders. Up to four or five years of age is usually the 
most profitable length of time for the breeding period of both male 
and female. The best age at which a boar should be put into service 
varies somewhat, according to the breed of hogs. Generally speak- 
ing, such animals should not be used under nine or ten months of 
age. 

Some sows will not take the boar during the period of estrum and 
others are bred with considerable difficulty. Such sows are of no 
value as breeding animals unless they produce pigs. This type of 
sow diminishes the vitality of the boar. It is sometimes desirable 
to breed a small sow to a large boar or a large sow to a small boar. 
These various breeding difficulties are largely overcome by the use 
of a breeding crate. Many different types of breeding crates have 
been devised. The type selected should be so constructed that it will 
be convenient and fulfill the requirements. In constructing a breed- 
ing crate, the one important feature that should be provided is that 
the sow will be in a natural position when confined in the crate. 

SELECTION OP HERD BOAR 

The quality of a herd boar should be carefully recognized and 
generally the points sought by the successful breeder are: big bone, 
large for his age, a long, wide, deep body, properly developed back, 
short neck and head, wide deep chest, low hams, short legs, and good 
feet. He should stand well on his toes, have small ears and a wide 
space between the eyes, have the proper color, fine hair, good action, 
gentle disposition and show distinct masculinity. 

Care of the boar is also of prime importance for success to the 



14 



SWINE PRACTICE 



breeder. In fact, the lengtli of time of usefulness of such an animal 
is determined largely by tlie care in maintenance. Tlie frequency 
of service of the boar varies with individuals and particularly accord- 
ing to their age. A young boar may be put to service every second 
or third day; whereas a mature boar may be put to service once or 
twice daily. Boars should be kept separate and in the summer time 
should be provided with a small pasture, and supplied plenty of fresh 
water. Winter care should include warm housing, with plenty of 
bedding and a maintenance ration. A common mistake of breeders 
is that of keeping their herd boar too fat. Another very important 
consideration for health and prolonging the period of productivity 
of boars is in requiring them to take ample exercise. Boars should 




Fig. 1. Farrowing House at Longview Farms. 



not be kept in small pens. Most breeders provide a small pasture for 
their breeding boars. If a large lot or a pasture is not available, 
feeding should be done in one end of the pen and the water supply 
kept in the opposite end which will necessitate the taking of some 
exercise to obtain feed and water. 

In the selection of a herd boar, the appearance and development of 
the testicles should not be overlooked. Cryptorchids or boars in 
which either or both testicles have not descended into the scrotum 
should be rejected. Cryptorchidism, although usually of congenital 
origin, is a malformation that is frequently transmitted to the male 
progeny. "About 5 per cent of the male progeny of one of Missouri's 
most famous boars, Chief Tecumseh II, were cryptorchids. Liberty 



GENERAL SWINE MxVNAGE^NIENT 



15 



Chief and Chief I Know, two boars sired by Chief Tecumseh II, were 
noted boars and from 3 to 5 per cent of their male get were cryp- 
torchids. Chief Perfection II, sired by Chief Tecumseh II, was the 
sire of Cherokee Perfection, which in turn sired about 3 per cent of 
cryptorchids. Thus this structural defect appeared in at least three 
generations." 

THE BROOD SOW 

The quality required in the sow is, of course, practically analogous 
to that required for the boar. The general contour and appearance 
should be strongly feminine, otherwise marks of identification should 
be as indicated in the male. The udder should be well formed and 




Fig. 2. Interior of farrowing house — more expensive than practical. 



provided with ten or twelve teats, distinctly defined, and these should 
extend well forward and backward and be wide apart. Most breeders 
claim that sows from mature animals are the best breeders. The 
most prolific age in sows is from two to four years. Many breeders 
breed gilts once and then fatten them for market, believing it to be 
profitable. It would be better and more profitable if these breeders 
would select from such gilts those that are prolific and good breeders 
and keep them for breeding until they are at least four years of 
age, rather than to trust to the single breeding as some have done 
in the past. Gilts should not be bred until they are nine or ten 
months of age. 

Whether or not the breeder should produce two litters of pigs a 



16 SWINE PRACTICE 

year depends entirely upon circumstances. A large percentage of 
the breeders so arrange their schedule that two litters can be pro- 
duced each year and thus apparently make the breeding business 
much more profitable. The care of the brood sow is practically the 
same as that of the boar, except that several sows may be main- 
tained in the same enclosure during both winter and summer months, 
or during the entire year, excepting the farrowing season and for 
three or four weeks thereafter. 

The dates for farrowing should be carefully considered and will 
necessarily vary according to whether the breeder is desirous of pro- 
ducing two litters per year or one, and will depend on climate 
and the housing facilities on the farm. In the middle west, where 
two litters are produced annually, the majority of breeders favor 
the dates between the middle of March and the middle of April for 
the first litter and the middle of September to the middle of October 
for the second litter. When different dates than the above are 
selected, particularly for the spring litter and especially in the 
northern countries, the breeder must be certain that he has the facili- 
ties for keeping the small pigs properly sheltered from inclement 
weather. A few breeders will naturally select other dates than those 
indicated and perhaps have goods reasons for so doing. 

When breeders have several sows, they usually prefer to have them 
all farrow about the same time, to economize labor in the care of the 
pigs. This, of course, is ordinarily advisable. The provision for 
farrowing, particularly as to housing, is very important. Most suc- 
cessful breeders now favor the individual hog house, and this is cer- 
tainly profitable where surroundings and climatic conditions will 
permit. As to the type of house, there is a variety of opinions but 
if the house is so constructed that it will protect against inclement 
weather and be so arranged that there is good drainage and that the 
pigs can be protected from the sow crushing them, it will meet all of 
the usual requirements. For early spring farrowing, some pure -bred 
breeders have provided heated hog houses, containing several indi- 
vidual pens without outside runs, which is of course a desirable 
method but relatively expensive. The single farrowing house is 
most desirable for grade breeding and particularly where a large 
number of hogs are kept on the same farm every year. 

The period of estrum occurs in the sow every twenty-one days 
until she conceives. The absence of the period of estrum is the first 
indication of pregnancy. Sows usually begin to fill in the flank and 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 



17 



show piggy in about six weeks after conception. The period of gesta- 
tion is from 112 to 120 days. 

FARROWING 

The breeder who does not isolate the sows from the general herd 
for farrowing and who does not provide clean and relatively sanitary 
quarters, will not be successful in raising pigs. 

For the best results, sows should have a change of diet about two 
weeks before farrowing, by reducing the fat forming foods and 
increasing the muscle and bone forming elements. The ration should 
be rather limited and should be of a laxative nature. Where feasi- 
ble, alfalfa hay or meal will be found to be a splendid diet, particu- 
larly when combined with skim milk. Needless to say, a change of 
diet should be rather gradual and not sudden. 




jb.<^»iyiirii^ig 



.';>.::♦. 




Fig. 3. One-sow farrowing houses. 

The farrowing house should contain a good quality of bedding, 
but this should not be used extravagantly, as a limited amount of 
bedding is more desirable than heavy bedding. The bedding mate- 
rail should be clean and not contain fibers or straws that are long 
and in which the little pigs might become entangled. 

Sometimes, sows, particularly young ones, may have difficulty in 
delivery, and in such cases provision must be made in order that the 
life of the dam and pigs both will be saved. The veterinarian should 
advise his client that such cases should be seen immediately when it 
is determined whether or not it will be necessary to perform a 
cesarean section. Some veterinarians have provided a special room 
in their hospital in which this operation is conducted, the farmers 
delivering patients direct to them. In this way, the veterinarian can 
perform the operation for a reasonable fee and he has the surround- 



18 



SWINE PRACTICE 



ings ill which the best possible service can be given. The use of for- 
ceps may be indicated, but each case is distinct within itself and it 
is not possible to give positive directions for such operations. 

Good breeders see that each pig begins breathing, and when neces- 
sary artificial respiraton is resorted to. Also each pig is required 
to suckle, and chilling of the recently farrowed pig is prevented. 

Pig eating sows are sometimes observed. This habit is usually the 
result of improper diet. It can usually be prevented by providing 
proper feed, although when a sow has formed the habit it is difficult 
to cure it and it may be necessary to fatten the sow for slaughter. 




Pig. 4. CESAREAN SECTION. Photograph taken seven days after the sow was 
delivered of seven pigs by laparotomy. 

Proper care of the suckling pig is necessary. They usually require 
considerable attention for about the first ten days. 

In recent years it seems probable that as much as 30 per cent of 
the spring crop of pigs has been lost. These extensive losses were 
due to a variety of conditions, the most important of which were 
abortion, scour, parasitism, pneumonia, swine plague and goiter. 

Abortion is becoming a serious menace to the swine industry. A 
detailed description of this disease appears elsewhere. Suffice is to 
say at this time that it appears to be of an infectious nature. Abort- 
ing sows should be isolated and this is one important factor that 
favors the individual farrowing house and separate pens for each 
sow and her litter. Breeders should be urged to divide their brood 
sows into small lots. 

Pig scour may be intimately associated with abortion disease in 
the sow. It has also been found that digestive derangement result- 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 19 

ing in diarrhea may be caused by B. suiseptieiis, B. suipestifer, B. 
paratyphoid, B. enterititis and colon bacillus, and probably also 
some other microbian agents. In some isolated eases, scour in pigs 
has been found to be due to digestive derangement of the sow. This 
disease will also be discussed elsewhere in detail. 

Scour due to various infecting microbian organisms may be largely 
prevented by providing sanitary surroundings for the brood sow and 
her litter. If the infection gains a foothokl, the various indicated 
biologies combined with proper feeding and sanitary measures will 
be found to be of considerable value. 

Parasitic pneumonia has been found to be a very potent factor in 
the loss of pigs. Losses incidental to this disease occur in pigs ten 
days of age and from that up to two or three months of age. The 
majority of cases of parasitic pneumonia in suckling pigs are due 
to the larval form of the ascarid. The life history of this parasite 
will be found detailed in the chapter on Intestinal Parasites. 
This loss in pigs can be prevented by elimination of parasites from 
the intestines of the brood sow prior to farrowing. It seems prob- 
able that these parasites may exist in a latent form for a consider- 
able time in the soil. Hence, the successful breeder provides for a 
frequent change of lots. 

Defective development of the thyroid gland has been found to be 
an important factor in some of the losses of the annual pig crop, 
particularly in some of the northern states. The exact cause of this 
condition has not yet been determined but it seems probable that 
the food of the brood sow is deficient in some necessary nutritive or 
growth element. This condition can be prevented by the adminis- 
tration of iodin or some of its salts to the brood sow, during the 
period of pregnancy. Because of the recurrence of this condition 
in succeeding years on the same farm, it seems justifiable to recom- 
mend iodin salts to the pregnant animals on that farm. 

Brood sows while suckling pigs should be given a good ration, 
containing the elements that stimulate the flow of milk and provide 
sufficient bone and muscle-forming ingredients. A breeder can not 
expect a sow to produce a good litter of pigs on a ration insufficient 
to maintain her in good living condition. 

The age for weaning pigs depends somewhat on the development 
and condition of the pigs. Generally speaking, pigs should be 
weaned at from ten to thirteen weeks of age. Most breeders diminish 
the milk-producing foods for the sow a few days prior to the time 



20 SWINE PRACTICE 

of weaning, although a few breeders advocate the weaning of a few 
of the pigs at a time. This method is not, generally speaking, advis- 
able. The sow and pigs nsnally do better if all of the pigs are 
weaned at the same time, and the pigs should be sufficiently sep- 
arated from the sow, so that neither can hear nor see the other. 

On the best regulated breeding and feeding farms the pigs are 
classified as soon as they are "weaned, separating those desired for 
breeding purposes from those to be used for feeding. Some feeders 
prefer to even re-classify their feeding lots, claiming that they have 
found it profitable to market pigs that are all practicalh^ the same 
size and color. The feeding of the different classes of pigs will be 
essentially different. The fattening hogs will be given a fattening 
ration, whereas, the breeding hogs will be given a growing ration. 
It is always advisable to properly identify pure-bred pigs that are 
to be kept for breeding. Different tags are available for this pur- 
pose, the choice of which will depend entirely on the breeder. 

Care of Stock Hogs 

The successful handling of stock hogs is one of the most important 
problems of the live stock industry in the United States. There are 
many sections in which insufficient grain is raised to fatten hogs, 
but the climate and surroundings are such that pigs can be produced 
and transported to those areas in which grain is raised in sufficient 
quantity to fatten more hogs than are normally produced in those 
areas. 

It does not seem possible to change this state of affairs and conse- 
quently the extent of the production of feeder pigs will be largely 
determined by the success that feeders have with pigs delivered to 
their farms for feeding purposes. Many points must be considered 
in purchasing stock hogs. A brief description of the most important 
points follows : 

Stock hogs have been raised in the country and shipped to mar- 
ket. It is not possible to know just what the surroundings have 
been from which and through which these hogs have passed before 
entering the market. If such hogs have been retained any great 
length of time in a hog buyer's yards, railroad stock^^ards or mar- 
kets,, they have had the opportunity of becoming infected with hog 
cholera and a variety of other conditions that are prone to affect 
swine. 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 21 

The purchaser should use judgment and care in selectmg hogs, to 
be certain that the hogs i)urchased are reasonably fresh from the 
farm and have not been retained for any great length of time before 
he acquires them. Government inspection safeguards the purchaser 
of stock hogs so far as is possbile, as all hogs showing any evidence 
of disease or rise of temperature are rejected. When a large num- 
ber of a given lot are rejected, it is an indication that it has been 
some time since the hogs left the farm. The usual method of pur- 
chasing hogs through the commission firm is that the commission 
firm permits the owner to return all rejects at the same price per 
pound that he paid for them. This point should always be definitely 
understood by the purchaser and his commission man. 

After the hogs have been purchased, the owner should be advised 
that they be given not only the serum and virus treatment, to im- 
munize them against cholera, but also bacterin treatment, to protect 
the hogs so far as possible against the future development of infec- 
tious pneumonia or swine plague and also against necrotic enteritis 
or inflammation of the bowel. Experience has demonstrated that 
the so-called triple treatment has been of advantage to the shipper 
in that the losses have been less than in those shipments in which 
the hogs have been immunized only against cholera. 

The purchaser should also instruct his commission man not to 
overload the cars, for overloaded cars result not only in lack of 
comfort, but actual damage to the hogs. Further provision should 
be made, particularly in the fall and winter months, to have the 
cars papered or provision made to protect the animals against incle- 
ment weather. The cars should also be provided with ample bed- 
ding, and the government requires that cars shall be cleaned and 
disinfected before used for such service. Shippers of stocker hogs 
will find that they will be materially benefited by taking care of 
the loading of cars, as indicated. 

Unless the time limit requires, the hogs should not be unloaded 
and fed enroute, and when necessary to feed, explicit instructions 
should be given that the feed be relatively light. Provisions should 
be made for the arrival of the hogs at destination, in order that 
they may be given the best possible care. If the hogs have had a 
relatively long journey it will be best to put them in the railroad 
stockyards, seeing to it that they are well bedded and cared for until 
the}^ have had an opportunity to rest and regain vitality. Similar 
provisions should be made on the farm; that is, particularly during 



22 8WINE PRACTICE 

rainy or cold weather, ample bedding shonld be provided and the 
hogs kept in dry, protected qnarters. Dnring the grass season, if 
it is possible the hogs shonld be tnrned on pastnre. 

SUCCESS DEPENDS ON FEEDING 

The feeding of recently innunnized, shipped stock hogs is of vital 
importance and the handling dnring this stage frequently determines 
whetlier or not the shipper will l)p successful or lose money on the 
venture. Such hogs should receive a small ration not to exceed 
one-half of the usual feed and it should be of a good quality. This 
half ration should be maintained for a period of a week or ten days; 
in fact, the hogs should not be given full feed for two weeks and 
even longer if there is any indication of disease in the animals. 

Should any evidence of disease of any character develop a careful 
examination shonld be made to determine what the condition is, in 
order that preventive measures may be established at once and to 
prohibit extensive losses. The diseases to which swine are most 
subject after immunization are hog cholera, infectious pneumonia 
or swine plague and infectious necrotic enteritis. Relatively few 
immunized stock hogs die of cholera, because the government regu- 
lations require that stock hogs be immunized with serum and virus 
made in establishments that are under government supervision and 
the immunization of stock hogs is under the direct supervision of 
one or more government veterinarians. Losses occuring from cholera 
due to impotent serum will occur in from the tenth to fifteenth day 
after immunization. Such conditions are usually manifested by a 
large percentage of the hogs showing evidence of disease at once. It 
is extremely difficult for a veterinarian to make a positive diagnosis 
of cholera in recently immunized hogs because tlie lesions attributed 
to hog cholera are also found in hogs that have been simultaneously 
immunized. The veterinarian should tlierefore be on his guard in 
making an examination of diseased conditions in stock hogs. 

Infectious pneumonia or swine plague is probably responsible for 
a large percentage of the losses that occur in stock hogs, aud the losses 
due to this disease usually oi-cur in from twenty to thirty days after 
the hogs are purchased. This loss may occur in hogs that have 
received the swine plague bacterin, because one injection of the bac- 
terin produces an imnnniity of relatively short duration and, there- 
fore, it is always advisable, j^articularly during changeable weather, 
to give a second injection of the swine plague bacterin a few days 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 23 

after their arrival on the farm, and some shippers have claimed 
that it is profitable to given even a third injection of the bacterin 
about a week after the second injection. 

Swine plague is manifested in hogs by a cough, nasal discharge, 
thumps and general dei)ression. As a rule, this disease does not 
spread as rai)idly as cholera and onlj^ a few animals in the herd 
will be observed in the beginning. The disease gradually affects 
others until ultimately perhaps 50 to 75 per cent of the shipment 
will be affected. Swine plague is not as fatal as hog cholera but it 
is a serious disease, because it produces a loss in condition, and such 
animals require much more feed for fattening than those that have 
not been affected. 

Infectious necrotic enteritis results from various organisms affect- 
ing the mucous membrane of the intestine and is evidenced by diges- 
tive disturbances consisting of irregular appetite, diarrhea, and the 
animals appear gaunt, weak and depressed. This disease, like swine 
plague, is not rapidly extended through a herd of hogs and is not 
as fatal as hog cholera, but is of very great economical significance 
because it produces a loss in condition that is expensive to overcome. 

In conclusion, it may be said that the stock hog business will be 
profitable for the feeder, provided he uses care and judgment in the 
purchase of his hogs, in designating that they be given the triple 
treatment, not overloading the cars and seeing to it that the animals 
are protected in the car while enroute and are provided clean dry 
quarters at destination and ample rest before they are taken to the 
farm, and given proper feed thereafter. 

Breeds of Sv^^lne 

The number of hogs in the United States has varied from 60,000,000 
to 76,000,000 in roinid numbers during the last decade. The exact 
number of registered pure-bred hogs in the United States is not 
known. According to the report of the secretary of the National 
Swine Growers' Association, there were 331,040 pure-bred hogs reg- 
istered in 1918, and it is probable that there are less than one million 
pure-bred hogs registered in this country at this time. There are some 
pure-bred hogs that are not registered, but it is surprising that there 
is such a small percentage of hogs in this country that are pure- 
bred. At the present time, there are splendid opportunities for those 
interested in swine production to raise pure-bred hogs. Market 
Huctuations have little effect upon the price of pure-bred breeding 



24 SWINE PRACTICE 

stock. Therefore, the producer of pure-bred swine has two outlets 
for his hogs, as they may be disposed of for breeding stock or for 
pork. 

The scrub hog, i. e., the "razor-back" type, has been responsible 
for extensive losses on many farms, because such hogs consume more 
feed in proportion to the weiglit gained than pure-bred swine. The 
difference in the amount of feed necessary to finish scrub hogs and 
pure-bred hogs makes a good profit in favor of the pure-bred. 

Many farmers and a few pure-bred breeders maintain that there 
will soon b€ an oversupply of pure-bred hogs and that the market 
will be glutted. There is no immediate danger of there being an 
oversupply of any breed of pure-bred hogs when it is considered that 
the ratio at present is, not to exceed, one pure-bred to seventy grades 
of scrubs. 

One reason why the pure-bred swine are limited in number is 
probably due to a difference of opinion as to the required charac- 
teristics of a given breed. The breed organizations are in most 
instances amalgamating the views of the different breeders and thus 
obtaining unity of the breed. 

The most popular type of swine in the United States is the so- 
called lard hog. It is the hog that when ready for slaughter contains 
a large amount of fat in the form of leaf lard and subcutaneous 
deposits. The bacon hog is more favored in other countries although 
they are becoming popular in this country and there are many 
breeders that are successfully breeding the bacon types of hogs. 

The following is a brief description of the principal breeds of 
the lard type of swine. 

POLAND CHINA 

The Poland China hog appears, according to the early history of 
the breed, to have had its origin in southwest Ohio about 1816, 
although the name was not established until 1872. 

Characteristics. — Head medium length and breadth, jowl rather 
full. Face straight, with very slight dishing. Cheeks full and 
rounding. Ears medium heavy to heavy and drooping. Neck medium 
short and thick. Shoulders smooth. Back moderately well arched, 
loins and ribs thickly covered. Sides long and deep. Hind cpiarter 
typified by thickness throughout the entire ham. Legs medium long, 
set well apart. Bone extra heavy. Hair straight and fine. Color 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 25 

black with white points, although a few white hairs are not con- 
sidered objectionable. 

The Poland China is readily adapted to climate and feed in the 
corn belt or any other hog-growing- section of the United States. 
They mature early, attain great weight at an early age on a minimum 
ef feed, and for several years of late have held the records for 
prolificacy. 

DUROC-JERSEY 

Accurate information as the origin of the Duroc-Jersey breed does 
not seem to be of record, and while it is generally believed that this 
breed is strictly American there is evidence tending to indicate that 
the original stock was imported. The most reliable information 
obtainable shows that originally there were two distinct families or 
branches of this popular breed, known as "Jersey Reds" and 
"Durocs." 

The family known as Jersey Reds was so named by Joseph B. 
Lyman, a resident of New Jersey and an agricultural editor of the 
New York Tribune, and the first man to advertise these hogs under 
this name was a Mr. Lippincott, of New Jersey. 

The family known as "Durocs" was so called by Isaac Frink, of 
Milton, New York, to whom that name w^as suggested by the name 
of the noted stallion Duroc, owned by Harry Kelsey, of Florida, 
N. Y., on whose farm Mr. Frink saw a litter of ten red pigs, thought 
to have been the product of a pair of pigs either bought in New 
York or imported from England. The productive power of these 
pigs immediately brought them into prominence and farmers and 
hog growers generally began to breed them. In the course of time 
the two families were interbred and assumed the name of Duroc- 
Jerseys. 

Characteristics. — Head relatively small. Face straight or only 
slightly dished. Nose medium. Ears medium, drooping forward. 
Eyes prominent. Back wide, well arched, ribs well sprung. Body 
deep and long. Shoulders fairly prominent, smooth, well fleshed. 
Hams heavy, thick, fleshed. Legs long rather than short, bone good. 
Color red of variable shades. 

The Duroc-Jersey is adaptable to climate and feed conditions in 
the corn belt. This breed probably matures earlier than most other 
breeds. The breeding characteristics of the Duroc-Jersey are dis- 



26 SWINE PRAt'TlCE 

tinctly superior. The meat compares favorably with that of any 
other breed. 

BERKSHIRE 

The Berkshire hog is a native of the south central part of England. 
According to history, the Berkshire was first introduced into the 
United States in 1823 by John Brentnall of New Jersey. 

Characteristics. — Head appears large and broad. Face medium 
length with distinct but graceful dishing. Ears erect or carried 
slightly forward. Back medium breadth, straight, ribs fairly or- 
dered. Rump long and level, tail set high. Shoulders medium, hams 
deep and thick. Legs fairly short, bone good. Color black with 
white stripe in face; white feet and tail. 

This breed is probably better adapted to the milder climates. 
Their maturing qualities are not of first rank. They are good grazers 
and good feeders and fair breeders. 

CHESTER WHITE 

The name of this breed is indicative of their origin in Chester 
County, Pa. The designation of the type for the Chester White 
hog had its origin about 1872. There seems to have been two or 
more variations in the development of this breed, and at the present 
time the Ohio improved Chester White is more commonly understood 
as the type of this breed of hogs. There have been three distinct 
record books for this group of white hogs, and if the animals have 
the proper line breeding they are eligible to register in any one of 
the three record books. 

The characteristics of the Chester White swine, according to the 
official score card of the Chester White Record Association are briefly 
as follows: 

Head short and wide, cheeks neat, jaws broad and strong, head 
medium high and wide. Face short and smooth, nose neat, slightly 
dished and tapering. Eyes large, clear and free from wrinkles or 
overhanging fat. Ears drooping, the tip thin and soft, pointing 
outward and forward and properly proportioned to the size of the 
body. The neck should be wide, deep, short, properly arched and 
tapering from the shoulders. Jowl smooth, neat, firm and tapering. 
Shoulders broad, deep and full, extending in line with the side and 
downward to the belly. The thorax should be large, wide, deep and 
full. There should be an even underline to the shoulders with flic 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 27 

side, with no creases. The ribs should be well sprung', thus providing 
ample room for the thoracic viscera. Brisket should be smooth, even 
and broad and wide between the legs. The back should be broad, 
straight, or only slightly arched, and of uniform width and free 
from rolls, and the animal should be the same heiglit at the shoulders 
and at the ham. The sides should be full, smooth, deep. The ribs 
should be long and well sprung at top and bottom, giving the animal 
a square form. The belly should be the same width as the back 
which should be full, straight, the same height at the flank as at the 
chest. The Hanks sliould be of equal size to the thorax; the head 
should be broad, long, full, wide and deep. The rump should be 
slightly rounding from the loin to the root of the tail, and of the 
same width as the back. The legs should be of medium length, 
strong, straight, set well apart and well under the body. The bones 
should be of good size, firm, well muscled, wide above the knees and 
hock, round and tapering below the hock, thus enabling the animal 
to carry itself with ease. The pasterns should be short and nearly 
upright. The feet should be short and firm and the animal should 
stand well upon the toes. The tail should be smooth, and tapering, 
carried in a curl. The coat should be fine and preferably straight, 
evenly distributed and covering the body well. The color should 
be white. The animals should be large for their age. They should 
hav€ good action, high carriage, they should be gentle and easily 
handled. 

The Chester White as a feeder ranks high. This breed is generally 
prolific, but feeders claim that the cross-bred Chester White makes 
a superior feeder. Chester W^hite pork has been regarded as good 
by expert meat testers. These hogs are readily adapted to pasture and 
are desirable feeders and tliereforo splendid hogs for the corn lielt 
section. 

MULE-FOOT 

This breed is so named because of its having a solid hoof. The 
representatives of this breed are not very numerous. This is prob- 
ably one of the original types of swine but unfortunately until 
recently about the only constant characteristic of the breed was the 
solid hoof. A few breeders have been doing some splendid work in 
establishing this breed by fixing a definite type with distinctive 
characteristics. It is probable that there are about 12,000 registered 



28 SWINE PRACTICE 

mule-foot hogs, but there will, no doubt, be a rapid increase in the 
registration of this breed. 

Characteristics. — Head medium length. Face almost straight, wide 
space between the eyes. Eyes bright, free from surrounding wrinkles. 
Ears medium in length, thin at tips, inclined outward and forward. 
Neck short and tapering from shoulders. Shoulders deep, medium 
width, and not extending above line of back. Chest voluminous and 
roomy but on a line even with belly. Back straight or slightly 
arched, good width and uniform thickness. Loin full and uniform. 
Sides full, smooth and uniform from shoulders to ham. Ribs well 
sprung and strong. Belly straight. Flank full and almost even 
with side. Hams full, long and deep. Legs well muscled, set evenly, 
and of medium length. Foot solid, hoof short and smooth. Tail 
straight or slightly curled and of medium length. Coat fine and 
smooth. Color, solid black. 

This breed is adaptable to any section of the country. They are 
splendid feeders with early maturity. The sows are prolific, some 
breeders claiming an average of nine pigs to the litter. They are 
docile and easily handled. 

Other breeds of lard hogs may be discussed, such as the Cheshire, 
the Victoria, Essex, Yorkshire and Suffolk, but these breeds of hogs 
are not well established in this country, although they may possess 
characteristics that are equal to any of the other breeds that have 
been more definitely described. 

BACON HOGS 

Export trade demands the bacon tyi)e of hogs and pork. How- 
ever, home consumption of the bacon hog is becoming much more 
common than in previous years. Generally speaking bacon hogs 
should have a relatively narrow back, head rather elongated, the sides 
long and deep, shoulders smooth, legs longer than in the lard type. 
The flesh contains less fat and more lean than the flesh of the lard 
type of hogs. Bacon hogs, because of these characteristics, are 
usually more active than the lard type. They rarely attain a weight 
of more than 200 or 225 pounds. 

HAMPSHIRE 

This breed was designated in this country for many years as the 
thin-rined hog. In 1904 the name was changed to Hampshire and 
although a different type of hog has the same name in England, it 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 29 

appears as though this breed in this country will be permanently 
known as the Hampshire hog. The origin of the American Hamp- 
shire is not definitely known. From the history, it is apparent that 
the first type of hog of this character was developed in Massa- 
chusetts about 1820. The following is a description of the charac- 
teristics of the Hampshire hog, according to the Hampshire Swine 
Record Association. 

Characteristics. — The head is of medium length, narrow back, not 
full; the face should be nearly straight and of medium width be- 
tween the eyes. The eyes should be bright and free from wrinkles 
or overhanging fat. Ears medium in length, thin, slightly inclined 
outward and forward. Neck short, well set on shoulders and uni- 
form, tapering from shoulders to head. The jowl should be light 
and tapering. Shoulders deep, medium wide and full and well in 
line with the back. The thorax large, deep and roomy, full girth 
and extending down in line with the belly. The back should be 
straight or slightly arched, nearly uniform from shoulders to ham 
and full at the loins. These hogs may be higher at the hip than at 
the shoulders. The sides should be somewhat full and firm. The 
ribs should be strong and well sprung. The belly should be straight 
and full, and running nearly on a line with the sides. The hams should 
be of medium width, long and deep, rump slightly rounded from 
loin to root of tail. The legs should be of medium length, set well 
apart but under the body. They should be wide above the knee and 
hock and well handled. The bones should be medium and the pastern 
short and nearly upright, the toes short and firm. Tail should be 
medium in length and slightly curled. The coat should be black 
with the exception of the white belt encircling the body, including 
the four legs, and the hair should be fine, straight and smooth. These 
animals should be active, vigorous and quick and possess a graceful 
style. They should be docile, quiet and easily handled. 

The Hampshire is usually quite prolific. It is not unusual to find 
ten to fifteen pigs in a litter, and the sows make excellent mothers 
and nurses. This breed of hog has been found to be a splendid grazer 
in Kentucky and in other states where it has been given a trial. 
This is a characteristic that makes this a popular breed. The quality 
of meat of the Hampshire, is distinctly superior, particularly the 
bacon. The breed is not as extensively distributed as some others, 
but is constantly increasing in popularity. 



30 SWINE PRACTICE 

TAM WORTH 

The Tamworth swine originated in central England. The specific 
origin, however, is not known. The original Tamworth hog was, ac- 
cording to history, very similar in many respects to the American 
"razor back." As agricnltnre became intensified the Tamworth 
was improved and is now one of the choice bacon types of hogs. 
These hogs were imported into the United States about 1880. 

Characteristics. — Tlie Tamworth has a long liead, body and legs; the 
snout is particularly long and has a tendency to be narrow and 
straight. The face is slightly dished. The ears should be large and 
erect. The back is narrow and long and usually slightly arched. 
The sides should be long and deep; the shoulders are well placed: 
the hams are relatively thin; the legs are long and stand easily upon 
the toes. Tlu^ color is red — a golden red hair on a fiesh-covered 
skin free from black preferred. 

The Tamworth is relatively large. The average mature l)oar 
weighs 600 pounds or more, and sows weigh about 450 pounds. The 
Tamworth breed ranks high as a bacon liog. The sides are long and 
have a special mixture of lean and fat. The feeding (luality is 
fairly good. They are good grazers, although many feeders claim 
tliat cross-breed Taniworths arc snperior. Tlie Tamworth i.-, pro- 
lific, excelling the Hampshire breed in this particular. 

THE LARGE YCRK.SinRE 

The large Yorkshire is a breed of swine of English origin. It is 
not very common in the Tnited States, but is a favorite breed in 
Canada, England. Ireland and some other countries where the rais- 
ing of swine for bacon is an important industry. 

Characteristic. — In general the conformatioii is typical of the 
bacon type cf hog. Head medium in length with slight dishinjc of 
face. Ears heavy and nearly erect, inclining slightly forward. Body 
distinctly long. Back of uniform width. Shoulder relatively long. 
Ham large and smooth. Side long, deep and uniform. Ribs well 
arched. Tail medium with slight curl. Hair long and medium 
fine. Color white. 

This breed is distinguished by their great length and size at ma- 
turity. The sows are prolific. Tliey are classed as good feeders in 
the United States. They are the ])i'('fcrred breed of bacon liog in 
some foreign countries. 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 



81 



Feeds and Feeding 

A food has been defined as any substance which may serve 
nutritive purposes. The natural demand for nutritive substances 
depends upon the waste. Foi- maintenance certain elements or food 



3'6 



IRON Bolt 



I I I 



3'0' 



Front Elevation 





Perspective with Roof 
Removld 



BILL or LUMBER 



Name 



TROUGH 



BAC^iiDE^.covrR 



CLEATS 



No, Dimension Bd. Ft, 



2'>12">. 3' 



2"' 6" 3 



2 •■"?■'» 6' 



;■■ . 6 ■. tZ 



r-^>IO' 



4Z 



t% 



bh 



TOTAL 2" STUFF. 



-13 



5TRIP5(6R0UHD5) IZ-LINEAR FEET 



HARDWARE 



\-'/z-Z'2" BOLT WITH WIN&EO NUT 



^■PLATL5;!^'»^-x4'' 



^ - .f- T HINGE5 



6&I6 PENNY NAILS 



Fig. 5. Small one-way self-feeders. (Clr. 119, Col. of Agri., U. of Wis.) 

compounds are required ; tlierfore the elements consumed not only 
require a certain quantity but must have a definite quality. A com- 
plete ration contains both organic and inorganic substances. The 
organic foods are nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. Nitrogenous 



32 



SWINE PRACTICE 



foods are used iu repair and growth. Non-nitrogenous foods, which 
are largely carbohydrates and fats, are the source of energy and 
the portion not consumed in energy products is stored as fat. 
Inorganic foods are necessary to replace the same elements that 
are found in various tissues and removed in secretions and ex- 
cretions. Water and various mineral salts are the usual inorganic 
foods. 

Diet depends upon the tyi^e of animal and its use. Mothers' 
milk is the natural diet of new l)orn mammals. Bv a series of 




Fig. 6. This "Cafeteria" is open twenty-four hours of the day. Pigs choose 
what they want, as often as they want, and as much as they want. The 
curl in their tails "registers" perfect contentment. (Cir. 119, Col. Agri.. U. 
of Wis.) 



experiments conducted at the Wisconsin Station, it was found that 
sows produced on an average of from 4.9 to 6.3 lbs. of milk for a 
series of 84 days. There is a wide variation in the quantity and 
perhaps also in the quality of sow's milk. Analysis of milk from 
a limited number of sows, shows that it contains approximately 7 
per cent butterfat, 6 per cent casein and albumin, 5.7 per cent 
sugar and 1 per cent of ash, or total solids of over 19 per cent. 
The total solids of cow's milk rarely exceeds 13 per cent. The fat 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 



53 



globules of sow's milk are only one-fourtli as large as those of cow's 
milk, w^liicli renders sow^'s milk more readily digestible than cow's 
milk. On investigation. Wall found that a mature sow produces 
7 7 10 lbs. of milk in twenty-four hours on a ration composed of 
4 lbs. each of corn meal and wheat middlings and 8 lbs. of skim 
milk. The sow's ability to convert feed into milk ranks favorably 
with that of a good dairy cow. 

Pigs when farrowed weigh from II/2 ^o 3 lbs. each. Those from ma- 
ture sows are usuallv larger than those from gilts. There is constant- 




Fig. 7. Pigs getting their rations at a self-feeder. (Cir. 119, Col. of 

Agri., U. of Wis.) 

ly increasing gain in weight when proper conditions are provided 
for pigs from the time of farrowing until weaning. The average 
W'cight of pigs at weaning time is from 35 to 50 lbs. This develop- 
ment in suckling pigs depends not only upon the supply of mother's 
milk, but also upon other foods. 

About 1 per cent of the weight of the sow is required in con- 
centrated foods to support her and a litter of pigs during the first 



34 SWIXE PRACTICE 

ten days after farrowing. Of that quantity about one-third is re- 
quired for the maintenance of the sow and two-thirds for the pro- 
duction of milk. 

The preparation of food stuff for swine is worthy of considera- 
tion. It has been found that grinding corn effected a saving in the 
majority of tests, sufficient to more than pay for the grinding; thus 
making grinding an economical proposition for the feeder. It is 
probable that corn, oats or like products should not be cooked. 
Potatoes and some other allied products are probably more palat- 
able and, consequently, make better feed when cooked. The value 
of soaking feed has been another disputed question. It is doubtful 
whether soaked feed has any superior quality to the original dry 
feed, and there are many objections to the soaking of feed. There- 
fore, in a general way, it may be said that it is not practical to 
soak feed for swine. 

The method of feeding is attracting considerable attention at the 
present time and recently there has been perfected a variety of 
self-feeders for hogs. These appliances are in demand because they 
diminish the cost of production in that they save labor, time and 
feed. Just the style of self-feeder that should be selected depends 
entirely upon circumstances and the purpose for which it is de- 
signed. Self-feeders are available in which any known kind of food stuff 
can be used. Some self-feeders are so constructed that the differ- 
ent food ingredients can be mixed. In others these various foods 
can be kept separate. Self-feeders should be cheap, durable, roomy, 
easily regulated for different kinds of feed and so constructed that 
there will be little difficulty from clogging of the trough. Feeders 
that have installed self-feeders have found that it is necessary to 
keep a close watch to see that the feeder does not become clogged 
and to see that it is properly located and always contains feed. 
When self-feeders are to supply feed for liogs that are on pasture 
they should be placed near to the pasture, or better, within the pas- 
ture ; otherwise, the hogs will do little grazing. 

FEEDING REQUIRES CARE AND JUDG:MENT 

The feeding of swine requires care and judgment. Good results 
are obtained if the feeder regulates the amount of feed and the 
methods of feeding. For full feeding the feed should be increased 
gradually. Swine that have been simultaneously innnunized against 
cholera should be given not more than half of their accustomed 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT oO 

ration for a period of one week. In ease of neerotie enteritis, 
tankage and like foods should be diminished, or withheld. Brood 
sows should be given ground oats oi' barley when their pigs are af- 
fected with scour. 

The following are important hog feeds : 

Pat and carbohydrate concentrates: corn, katir, milo, feterita, 
wheat, oats, barley, rye, speltz, and rice. Various modifications 
and forms of the above named feeds are on tlie market. Corn is 
l)erliaps the most common hog feed in the central states. It maj- 
be fed as ear corn, shelled corn, corn meal, corn and cob meal, 
liominy and reeently it has been found to be profitable to hog-down 
corn. Kafir appears to have about 90 per cent of the feeding value 
of corn. This grain is produced in some of the semi-arid sections 
and is a very popular feed. M'lo and feterita are very similar to 
kafir and need no further discussion. Wheat, particularly when 
ground, is a splendid hog feed, although it usually is prohibitive 
because of its price. Oats is an especially valuable feed, particularly 
for sows and little pigs and should be ground before being used as 
feed for swine. When used for little pigs, it is advisable to remove 
the hulls as they are likely to cause impaction. Barley is a fairly 
good substitute for oats as a hog feed and like oats should be ground 
before being fed. Rye, speltz and rice have practically the same 
value as wheat as to hog feeds. They should be ground but are 
rarely used because of their high cost. 

Protein concentrates : skim milk, buttermilk, whej", tankag'e, meat 
meal, blood meal, oil meal, shorts, bran, commercial stock feeds, cot- 
ton seed meal, alfalfa meal, peas, beans and peanuts. Skim milk is 
one of the best and cheapest protein feeds for swine. It is particularly 
valuable for young pigs and brood sows. AVhen mixed with shorts 
or middlings, it makes a wonderful protein supplement to be com- 
bined with corn. For every pound of corn, not more than 3 lbs. 
of skim milk should be fed to swine to secure the best and most 
economical results. Feeding on this basis when corn is $1.00 per 
bushel, skim milk has a value of over 50c for each 100 lbs. Butter 
milk is of equal value to skim milk for pig feeding. Whey has been 
found to be worth about one-half as much as skim milk for pig- 
feeding purposes. A condensed form of skim milk and probably 
other milk by-products are now manufactured, and reports indi- 
cate that these products are valuable as food for swine. Tankage 
or meat meal is a splendid supplement to corn as the tankage sup- 



36 SWINE PRACTICE 

plies the protein, the percentage varying from one to twenty per 
cent of tankage, depending upon the age of the hog and whether 
or not he is on a maintenance ration or is to be fattened. Blood 
meal should be fed in a smaller p] 'portion than meat meal, as 
it is more concentrated. 

Oil meal is a splendid nitrogenous feed for swine. It contains 
only about one-half as much digestible protein as tankage and 
therefore must be fed in larger quantities. This feed is especial- 
ly valuable as a conditioner and a laxative, and is fed by a great 
many breeders to sows just before farrowing. Shorts combined 
with corn meal make a splendid ration for swine. Their value is 
probably indicated by the fact that about 90 per cent of hog feed- 
ers use shorts. Bran is a laxative and when properly combined 
with shorts is a valuable feed. It contains muscle and bone-form- 
ing elements but does not contain as high a percentage of nitro- 
gen as some of the foregoing feeds. There is such a variety of 
commercial stock feeds designed for the purpose of fattening that 
a detailed description of them does not seem advisable in a text 
of this character. Cotton-seed meal is fed in considerable quanti- 
ties in some sections of the country. There is, however, danger 
in the use of this feed and it should be used guardedly by feed- 
ers; otherwise, bad results are likely to follow. Alfalfa meal is a 
splendid food. It is rather bulky and highly nitrogenous and 
should be combined with some of the concentrated protein feeds, 
when used. Peas, beans and peanuts are all valuable nitrogenous 
foods. The specific combination that gives best results will depend 
upon the type of pea or bean, but they will be found in practically 
all instances to be highly nitrogenous. 

It has been found profitable in practically every community to 
pasture hogs for a portion of the year. From all reports, it seems 
probable that alfalfa pasture is the most desirable, but unfortunate- 
ly it can not be grown in some sections. Not only is alfalfa 
pasture of value in the growing of swine, but also alfalfa hay is 
found to be of almost equal value, particularly if the alfalfa is cut at 
the proper time. Red clover is almost as valuable as alfalfa and is 
preferred in many locations because of the ease with which it is 
cultivated. By test it has been found that one acre of red clover 
pasture is worth as much as a ton of shorts. 

A few breeders are now resorting to sweet clover as a substitute 
for alfalfa or for red clover. Rape is sometimes used for pasture, 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 37 

and according to some authorities is superior to clover. Blue grass 
is used for pasture by some breeders. During certain seasons of 
the year many breeders have found it profitable to use wheat, rye 
or oats as a i)asture grass. Tlie pasture regardless of the grass or 
forage contained should neither be too large nor too small, especial- 
ly for fattening or growing swine, although it is not objectionable 
to have a large area for brood sows. Swine in pasture usually re- 
quire ringing to prevent rooting. In some portions of the coun- 
try, roots of various kinds are grown for feed purposes and serve 
admirably as a bulk feed. For this purpose, sugar beets, turnips, 
mangels and carrots are used for hog feed in different sections 
of the country. Pumpkins, squash, apples and potatoes are used 
to some extent in some localities for swine feed. 

GARBAGE FEEDING 

Garbage feeding of swine is now done on a large scale adjacent 
to the larger cities in all parts of this country. It was recom- 
mended by the government as a means of conservation, and garbage 
feeding was instituted near practically every large camp in this 
country during the recent war. As the population increases there 
will of necessity be greater need for the conservation and conver- 
sion into food, of materials that are now wasted. Swine can com- 
plete the cycle between man's waste and his food, and from a sani- 
tary point of view pork from garbage-fed hogs is not injurious and is 
a wholesome food. 

Garbage when not contaminated with foreign substances, such 
as broken glass, lye, paint, varnish, etc., is not injurious to swine. 
The feeding should be done on especially constructed platforms, 
preferably of concrete. These platforms should be thoroughly cleaned 
at least once daily in warm weather, to prevent putrefaction prod- 
ucts from accumulating, and also for sanitary reasons. In the 
beginning swine should be fed sparingly of garbage until they be- 
come accustomed to it. The quantity fed must be determined by 
the nature of the garbage, but it should not be piled into the troughs 
in excess of what will be consumed each day. Garbage-fed hogs, 
wlien shipped, will sln-iiik more in proportion than those fed on 
grains. 

Sanitation 

The ordinary hog feeders do not appear to recognize the value of 
good sanitation in their feed lots and shelter houses, and many 



38 



SWINE PRACTICE 



pure-bred breeders do not provide sanitary conditions tliat are neces- 
sary to the maintenance of the health of their swine. Some veter- 
inarians apparently do not realize the necessity for sanitary sur- 
roundings for successful swine breeding or feeding. "Anything is 
good enougli for swine," is an altogether too connnon maxim and 
too frequently followed. 

The original wild hog is select in habits particularly as to its bed 
and place for farrowing. Domesticated swine have been kept in 
tilth for so many generations that it is presumed by many that in- 
sanitary surroundings are required for swine. 

The prime sanitary requisites for successful swine breeding and 
feeding are: 1, housing; 2, properly drained lots; 3, equip- 
ment that can be effectively cleaned; 4, feed and water; 5, quaran- 
tine. 

The provision for shelter for swine is necessary, because nature 
did not provide them with a coat of hair sufficient to protect them 
against extreme weather conditions or sudden changes in tempera- 




Cir. 102. r. S. Dept. Agri. ) 



ture. Their thin coat of bristles is insufficient protection, particu- 
larly in little pigs, to insure health. In the construction of hog 
houses the following points should be given consideration : location, 
adaptability for the purpose desired, light, ventilation and con- 
venience. The material for construction of hog houses necessarily 
varies somewhat in different localities. The usual hog house, at 
least the super-structure, is made of lumber. The old straw sheds, 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 



39 



although occasionally seen are to be condemned, as they are invariably 
insanitary. Stone, brick and tile are used in the building of hog 
houses and when properly constructed, houses of these materials 
are desirable. The kind of floor for hog houses has been discussed 
in various periodicals for several years, and apparently the decision 
has been that concrete is desirable if some cover is provided that 
overcomes the dampness and cold, peculiarities characteristic of con- 
crete in cold weather. Some obtain results from a plank floor over 
the concrete, others use a cork brick, and some swine breeders in the 
extreme south are claiming good success with out a cover of any kind 
on the concrete, but they use extra quantities of bedding. The es- 
sential condition required is that the floor be practically impervious 
so that it can be cleaned and properly drained. 

THE HOG HOUSE 

The location of a hog house is a problem that can be determined 
only by a careful study of the arrangements of the other farm build- 




Pig. 9. Expensive hog house and yards. A permanent location such as 
this increases the difficulty of combating disease and parasites. 



ings. The hog house should be conveniently located as to supply of 
feed and water. The location should be such as to provide for good 
drainage and so situated that it will not receive the drainage from 
the horse or cattle barns or yards. It is advisable to build only 
upon soil that is more or less porous. The direction of the long 
axis of the hog house will depend upon the location and the form 



40 



SWINE PRACTICE 



of the house. The doubk^ hog house with a center hall should 
extend east and west and have a northern and southern exposure. 
However, the north outside pens of sueh a house are of little value 
for little pigs in the winter. Houses in which the pens are on the 
one side only should, of course, extend east and west and thus 
have a southern exposure. 

The type of hog house will depend upon the requirements. Farrow- 
ing houses of the double type with a center hall and a series of pens 




Fig. 10. Mississippi hog house. This type of house provides comfort for 
hogs both in winter and summer. (Bull. 177. Miss. Agri. Ex. Sta.) 



on eitlier side are the most economically constructed per pen and nve 
rather popular in some sections of the country. Some breeders 
of high-priced swine prefer to l)uild a single house with the hall 
extending along the north wall and one series of pens with a southern 
exposure. The single house is more desirable because of the southern 
exposure but is not as economical. The single farrowing house is 
prol)ably the most popular and apijarently the most economical. 
The type of single farrowing house in most common use is the 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 41 

simple A form house which is so constructed that it can be readi- 
ly moved by a horse or team of horses. Every farrowing pen 
should be provided with a pig rail about eight inches above the floor 
and the same distance from the sides. This protects pigs from 
crushing by careless mothers. 

Houses or shelter for feeding hogs should be simple in type, the 
rectangular form being the most economical. These sheds or houses 
should have a southern exposure. They serve also as a windbreak on 
the north side of the hog lot. It is not advisable to have such sheds 
too large, or if they are of such size that they shelter more than 
one carload of fattening hogs there should be partitions or parti- 
tion fences to keep the hogs separated into lots of not more than 
80 to 100 head each. 

VENTILATION NECESSARY 

That the subject of ventilation has not been given proper con- 
sideration by the builders of hog houses is evident to those who have 
inspected hog houses in i)ractically any section of the country : 
Proper ventilation is especially necessary in farrowing houses. Lit- 
tle pigs are delicate and are very susceptible to the action of draughts, 
and the successful breeder has the hog house so constructed that 
the recently farrowed pigs will be kept dry and warm, away from 
draughts and amply provided with fresh air. Improper venti- 
lation is responsible for the loss of hundreds of pigs annually. In 
a well ventilated hog house, the walls and windows will remain, 
practically dry even in cold weather. In the construction of a 
double hog house with a center hall or a single hog house with a 
series of pens on one side only, it is advisable to make an offset in 
the roof as this provides a means for proper ventilation. A second 
row of windows should be provided in each side of the hog house, 
the bottom of the window being about three and one-half feet above 
the floor and hinged at the bottom so they can be lowered from 
the top. In the individual hog house hinged windows should be 
placed at the ends and a ventilator above. Improved methods of 
ventilation by special appliances are worthy of consideration. 

The subject of lighting is effected in conjunction with ventilation 
except when special ventilating devices are installed. A hog house 
for farrowing purposes cannot be over-lighted in the colder sections 
of the country. Window glass through which the sun can shine is 
a means of purification, and of increasing the warmth. In cqa- 



42 SWlNE PRACTICE 

strutting the double hog house with the center hall or one half of 
the double house, offsets in the 7'oof should be provided in order that 
all parts of each pen will be amply lighted. A second row of 
windows should be provided on each side, of either a single or 
double hog hou:se, the bottom of the window being about three and 
one-half feet above the floor. The single farrowing house may be 
constructed with windows on two sides or with hinged board 
shutters which may be opened except during stormy weather and 
thus ample light be provided. 

No special expense is required in the construction of hog houses 
to make them convenient for the caretaker and thus save labor 
and inconvenience. The partitions should be made of sections that 
can be removed and used in making new combinations of pens, alleys 
or chutes. Troughs for water and feed can be placed where they 
are readily accessible to the feeder and so arranged that they can 
l)e easily and effectively cleaned. The feed bins can be made hopper 
fashion in order that the feed may be accurately measured and easily 
obtained. The floors can be so laid that they can be cleaned with 
little labor, and space that is accessible should be provided for the 
accumulation of manure and other waste. Water should also be 
convenient. When possible, running water is most desirable, but 
this can be provided with safety only in heated hog houses in nvM 
sections of the country. 

For fattening hogs, it is quite essential to have a solid floor where 
feeding and watering is done. These floors should be made of con- 
crete, although heavy plank will do. Such floors should be provided 
regardless of the size of the lot or pasture in which the hogs are 
kept. Feeding and watering troughs or self feeders should be so 
placed on these floors or platforms that food or water that is spilled 
will be accumulated on them. The self feeder will be found con- 
venient and will save feed and labor and therefore be economical 
for fattening of hogs as well as for the maintenance of breeding 
hogs. 

A dipping vat should be provided on every farm on which hogs 
are kept. It should be so located that the surface drainage can be 
controlled and so that the arrangement of the pens and chutes will 
be convenient. The kind of a dipping vat installed will depend 
upon the permanency of the location of the vat and the cost price. 
Galvanized iron vats are easily placed in position and can be readi- 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 



43 



ly moved to other locations. Concrete vats are practically perma- 
nent as to location. 

A vat should be of the following dimensions : 

Top length ....10 ft. 8 in. Top width 2 ft. 4 in. 

Bottom length 4 ft. 8 in Bottom width ..1 ft. 6 in. 

Depth 4 ft. 4 in. 

There shonld be an incline on both the inlet and outlet ends. The 
drii)i)ing pen slionld be about 5 ft. scjuare and tlie floor so arranged 
tliat the dri]i from tlie animals will drain back into the vat. 

PROPER DRAINAGE ESSENTIAI> 

The location of hog yards and lots so as to insure })roper drain- 
age is frequently overlooked. On many farms the hog lot is located 




Fig. 11. Well-drained swine pastures where but few animals are kept 
together. There is little trouble from disease and parasitism where such 
methods are followed. 



on ground that is low, boggy or swampy and is apparently of no 
value for any other purpose. The selection of such lots is a serious 
mistake and is frequently responsible for the failure to produce hogs 
at a profit on tliat farm. Hog lots should be high and dry and so lo- 
cated as to insure good drainage. The old hog wallow serves no good 
purpose but does provide a read}' means for the propagation of a 
variety of infective agents and serves to promote the maintenance of 
animal parasites on the premises. Low areas should be overcome by 
grading, thus preventing the accumulation of stagnant water. Pas- 
turing is the preferable way of maintaining hogs from the sanitary 
viewpoint. 



44 SWINE PRACTICE 

All equipment used in the handling of swine, such as water troughs, 
feed troughs, self-feeders, chutes, dipping vats and crates should be 
so constructed that they can be efficiently cleaned. The successful 
breeder and feeder has foimd that the handling of swine for profit 
can be accomplished only when all equipment houses, pens and lots 
are kept in a sanitary condition. It is also found that those who 
lose money in handling hogs usually do so because of their failure 
to recognize the importance of sanitation. 

Clean wholesome water is as requisite to the health of swine as it 
is to the health of any other animal. Hogs that obtain and depend 
upon water from stagnant pools or ponds are practically always 
found to harbor large numbers of animal parasites. It is probable 
the digestive disturbances, such as infections necrotic enteritis, are 
more prevalent in swine that obtain their water from questionable 
sources than in swine that are provided with clean wholesome water. 

VALUE OF QUARANTINE 

Every well regulated swine-breeding or feeding farm has provisions 
for quarantining newly piu'chased animals, show animals or sick ani- 
mals that may be in the liome herd. Quarantine is efficient only 
when the animals are absolutely isolated from all others and exposure 
of all other animals prevented. Quarantine pens should therefore 
be removed some distance from the regular pens. Newly introduced 
animals or show herds should be kept in absolute quarantine for a 
period of at least three weeks, and then if they appear normal they 
may be permitted in the general hog houses or lots. Sick animals 
should be isolated for a sufficient time to determine the existing con- 
dition, and if they are found to be affected with some infectious 
disease the quarantine should be continued for three weeks after they 
have apparently recovered. The quarantine pens should be cleaned 
and disinfected after use, regardless of whether the quarantined ani- 
mal evidenced disease or not. Cleaning should consist of gathering 
all manure, bedding and other litter and burning or thoroughly soak- 
ing with a 3 per cent solution of liquor cresolis eompositus; then 
all fences, partitions, feed troughs and the interior of the quarantine 
hog house should be thoroughly washed with the same solution. 

General Diagnosis 

Diagnosis is the foundation for successful treatment. There has 
been considerable confusion in the diagnosis of swiu^ diseases. This 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 45 

confusion in the identitieation of diseases of swine by practitioners 
has been largely due to the publication of contradictory statements. 
Some practitioners diagnose practically all ailments of swine as 
cholera regardless of evidence that would in some cases clearly indi- 
cate some other disease. In some sections practically all diseases of 
hogs are designated as "mixed infection," and in other localities, 
according to reports, swine are always afflicted with "flu." 

The differential diagnosis of diseases of swine requires a compre- 
hensive investigation including postmortem examinations. The ex- 
amination of sick hogs as made b,y the general practitioiier is usnal- 
l,y entirely too superficial for a differential diagnosis. It is true that 
the diagnosis made by the practitioner is correct in the majority of 
instances, but an erroneous diagnosis will stand out prominently in a 
community and will have a tendency to cause a lack of confidence 
by the hog raisers in the veterinarian. The practitioner should edu- 
cate his clientele as to the value of laboratory examination, which is 
frequently necessary in making a positive diagnosis. Judgment must 
be exercised in all cases and in many instances it may be advisable 
to apply, treatment before an absolute diagnosis has been made. 

A comprehension of the structure and functions of the various 
parts of the body is indispensable. In other words, the successful 
practitioner should possess a knowledge of anatomy and physiology 
and the fundamental principles of pathology and bacteriology, as 
well as a knowledge of therapeutics. Too many students in veteri- 
nary colleges and some practitioners are of the opinion that their 
success in practice will be measured by their knowledge of drugs, 
serums, etc. The student and the practitioner should not obtain 
less information upon therapeutics, but should obtain more informa- 
tion upon the basic subjects of anatomy, physiology, pathology, bac- 
teriology and chemistry, if they expect to render the service to the 
live stock industry that is justifiable. 

In making an investigation of hogs for the purpose of diagnosis, 
the veterinarian should be very deliberate. He can profitably sit on 
the fence while he views the affected animals undisturbed, noting 
their attitude and general behavior. After all information that is 
possible has been obtained from "the seat on the fence," the veteri- 
narian should walk leisurely around in the pen observing the general 
movement of the swine, noting whether any symptoms are evident 



46 SWINE PRACTICE 

and incidentally observing the character of the feces, the nature of 
the feed, condition of housing and general sanitation. 

HISTORY OF PARAMOUNT IMPORTANCE 

During the time that the foregoing general inspection is being 
made, or immediately thereafter, the history of the affected animal or 
animals should be obtained. Each veterinarian has, no doubt, ac- 
quired a method of obtaining information from his client. 

The exact history of diseased conditions in swine is of paramount 
importance, particularly in ditt'erentiating between infectious diseases. 
It is always essential to determine whether or not the swine in 
question have been medicated or whether they have been immunized 
against hog cholera, swine plague or other infections and the time 
of immunization. It is conceded that the simultaneous immunization 
of swine against hog cholera will produce lesions that are usually 
attributed to hog cholera and if such immunization has been done 
recently and the attending veterinarian fail to obtain that informa- 
tion, he would probably diagnose any existing condition as hog 
cholera from the autopsy findings in such animals. The history of 
the case should include tlie length of time that the disease has 
existed, the symptoms evidenced, the nature of the feed, the number 
of animals affected and their age, because these are all questions of 
vital importance in the diagnosis of swine diseases. 

After the history of the case has been ascertained a careful ex- 
amination of the diseased animal should be made to determine the 
present condition. This examination should include a careful in- 
si)ection of every region of the body, manipuhition of all available 
parts of the body, especially any portion tliat is apparently abnor- 
mal. Allowance must be made for nervous, irritable animals. Ex- 
amination l)y percussion and auscultation is of less value in swine 
than in most other animals; however, by experience, particularly 
in bacon hogs, a fairly accurate examination can be made of the 
thoracic viscera. 

ATTITUDE OF ANIMAL 

The general attitude of the diseased animal is significant and some- 
times is of value in making a diagnosis. Swine affected with pneu- 
monia are usually found lying down, except when the lung capacity 
is seriouslv diminished, when thev will assume a sitting posture. Un- 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 4( 

cei'taiii gait characterizes general weakness and is typified in the 
latter stages of any infective disease or debilitating condition. 
Stilty gait is characteristic of tetanus in swine. Dragging of the 
liind quarters is typical of rachitis, polyneuritis, osseous tubercu- 
losis and perhaps some other conditions. Lameness associated with 
swollen joints is typical of polyarthritis. Disturbances of locom- 
tion may be of rhemnatic origin or may be due to injury, or to in- 
fection with B. necrophorus. 

CONGESTION OF THE SKIN 

Congestion or hemorrhage into the skin is observed in hog cholera, 
paratyphoid infection and swine plague, and there is a peculiarly 
disposed congestion in the so-called diamond skin disease in which 
rhe congested area occurs in the form of a baseball diamond. Malig- 
nant edema has been identified in swine and is typified by a sub- 
cutaneous edema with deep-seated gas. Swine are subject to urti- 
caria in which the lesions are typical but are usually difficult to 
identify because of the cutaneous pigment, excepting in those eases 
which are well marked. There is a papulo-vesicular eruptive con- 
dition that occurs in swine in the south in which the successive 
changes are papules, vesicles and in some cases inistules, followed by 
scab formation or less frecpiently by ulceration. 

ECZEMA 

p]ezema with all the cutaneous variable symptoms and lesions is 
occasionally observed in swine. Swine are alfected with sarcoptic 
and follicular mange, the cutaneous lesions of which are character- 
istic. In sarcoptic mange the lesions are first noted around the 
eyes and ears and consist of papules, vesicles and pustules. The 
principal symptom of sarcoptic mange is intense pruritus. This 
condition usually aft'ects several animals in the same lot. Follicular 
mange is usually not of an enzootic character. The lesions are 
usually confined to the skin of the legs which will be intensely red. 
Cutaneous irritation due to infestation with lice, fieas and mosqui- 
toes should not be overlooked. Foot-and-mouth disease affects swine 
in which the typical changes incident to that disease are observed. 

There is usually a mucopurulent infiammation of the conjunctival 
mucosa in hog cholera and swine plague, and a similar condition has 
been observed as a result of the bites of flies and gnats. There may 



48 SWINE PRACTICE 

be a specitic conjunctivitis in swine, in which there is a nincopurulent 
discharge. 

TEAIPERATURE VARIATIONS 

The normal temperature of mature swine is about 102° F. and of 
pigs from 102° to 104° F. The temperature of swine is readily ob- 
tained by inserting a clinical thermometer into the rectum. When it 
is necessary to ascertain the temperature of a large number of swine it 
will be found advantageous to provide a small pen in which the oper- 
ator can readily take temperatures without exciting the swine. This 
method is used in public stockyards where immunizing against hog 
cholera is done on a large scale. Where more than one thermom- 
eter is used by a single operator it will be found advantageous to 
attach a string with some kind of a clamp to the thermometer. The 
thermometer can then be inserted and fastened to the pigs' hair. 

Typical remittent or intermittent fever has not been recorded 
in swine in this country. In the infective diseases of swine there 
is a regular, continuous fever. Hogs are especially subject to high 
temperatures, particularly those of the lard type. Hog cholera is 
typified by a regular fever in which the high point may be 108° F. 
Swine plague is associated with fever, the temperature in which is 
usually not so high as in hog cholera. 

The fact that excitement and exertion cause a rise of temperature 
in swine must not be lost sight of by the examining veterinarian. 
Necrotic or infective enteritis is associated with an irregular fever 
in which the temperature may reach 105° F. Subnormal tempera- 
ture is frequently observed in the later stages of hog cholera and 
necrotic enteritis. Anthrax is an actue infective disease character- 
ized by a continuous fever in which the temperature is relatively 
high. 

EXAMINATION OF HEART AND PITLSE RATE 

The usual method of determining the rate of the heart is by feel- 
ing the pulsations as transferred in an artery. In swine it is ex- 
tremely difficult to detect the pulse in the usual manner; hence the 
heart-beat is taken. The average pulse-frequency or heart-beat in 
swine varies from 60 to 100 per minute. As in other animals, the 
larger individuals carry a slower pulse-rate. The pulse-rate is 
increased by excitement or exercise, in most febrile diseases, in se- 
vere hemorrhage and when the animal is suffering from injuries or 
other conditions that cause pain. Because of our inability to de- 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 49 

tect the pulse in swine it is not possible to make determinations 
relative to the rhythm and (piality of the pnlse. Swine are appar- 
ently not as subject to disturbances of the heart and blood vessels as 
other animals. 

DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS 

Swine are relatively prone to diseases of the respiratory organs; 
therefore a careful examination should be made to ascertain, if pos- 
sible, the condition of those organs. The respiratory rate varies in 
swine from 10 to 20 per minute. Large and mature swine breathe 
less frequently than small pigs. Respiration is increased by excite- 
ment and exercise and is relatively more frequent in high altitudes. 
Inspiration may be prolonged by stenosis of the anterior respiratory 
passages, and expiration may be prolonged by spasms of the 
bronchioles or inefficiency of the diaphragm. Labored breathing or 
dyspnea occurs as a result of fever, diseases of the lung, bron- 
chioles, pleura, diaphragm and peritoneum ; in pulmonary emphysema 
and edema. The exhaled air has a bad odor, from swine affected 
with pulmonary necrobacillosis, and in some cases of medicamentous 
pneumonia. 

NASAL DISCHARGE 

Nasal discharge is always pathological in swine. The quantity, 
color and consistency of the nasal discharge should be carefully 
noted. The quantity generally indicates the extent of tlie process ; the 
color and consistency and the nature of the process. If the discharge 
is admixed with air and appears as a foam it probably originates 
from the bronchioles and indicates bronchiolitis. Involvement of the 
nasal mucosa and bulging of the nasal and facial bones occur in 
bull-nose. In some cases, ulceration and necrosis of the nasal mucosa 
are observed; they indicate necrobacillosis. 

COUGH 

Cough, a sudden expiration following a full deep inspiration, 
is a common symptom occurring in a variety of respiratory diseases. 
Cough also occurs as a result of inhaled foreign bodies, smoke, dust, 
cold air, parasites, etc. A short hacking cough indicates disturb- 
ances of the pharynx. Laryngeal irritation is evidenced by repeated 
coughing. In bronchitis there is usually a moist deep cough. Para- 
sitic pneumonia is usually manifested by a series of expulsive ex- 



50 SWINE fRACl^lCE 

piratory efforts or congli or spasms of coughing and there is usually 
a wheezing respiration. An examination of the lungs of swine is 
not practical except to a limited extent in liacon hogs, because of 
the thickness of the thoracic wall. 

NATURE OF FEED AND WATER SHOl'LD BE DETERMINED 

It is always advisable to make a careful examination of the food 
and water. The quantity and quality of food consumed is of prime 
importance. Swine frequently consume young cockleburs and become 
affected with acute gastritis or gastro-enteritis. Inappetence is an 
outstanding symptom of acute infective diseases and especially hog 
cholera. The desire for water is increased in diseases in which 
there is diarrhea and also in febrile conditions. 

DIGESTIVE DISTURBANCES 

Swine experience little difficulty in deglutition and disturbance 
of the pharynx and the esophagus are not common. Swine are ap- 
parently provided with durable teeth as they seem to have little 
difficulty in mastication which, however, is usually not thorough. 
Little pigs occasionally become affected with ulcerative stomatitis 
in which the buccal mucosa adjacent to the teeth is affected probably 
as a result of infection with the B. necrophorus. 

Because of the anatomical nature of the stomach and esophagus, 
swine vomit with ease, and this method of relief probably prevents 
serious digestive disturbances resulting from gorging or overload- 
ing the stomach. Vomition is frequently observed in the early 
stages of hog cholera, also in intestinal obstruction, extreme cases 
of constipation and when there are foreign bodies in the stomach. 

Swine are not as sul)ject to the various digestive disturbances as 
are larger animals. However, garbage-fed hogs may become affected 
with digestive disturbances, the result of auto-intoxication or the 
consumption of putrid protein foods. Constipation is evidence of 
febrile diseases or excessively dry bulky foods, but it is not of com- 
mon occurrence. 

Diarrhea is the characteristic symptom in pig scour and infective 
necrotic enteritis. Fecal discharges should be carefully examined 
for the detection of parasites or their ova. Arduenna strongylina, 
Ascaris suum, Esophagostoma dentatum, Trichocephalus crenatus, 
Trichina spiralis and Gigantorynchus hirudinaceus are the para- 



GENERAI. SWINE MANAGEMENT 01 

sites that may be found in the feces of swine. Diarrhea is also a 
common S3'mptom of hog chok'ra. 

URO-GENJTAL DISTURBANCES 

It is difficult to make a physical examination of swine for the 
detection of disturbances of the urinary organs. It is possible to 
eatheterize sows, but it is practically impossible to perform this 
oi)eration upon a barrow or boar. Information is limited relative to 
the findings in the urinalysis in swine. By inspection the fre- 
quency of urination or attempts to urinate can be noted. The color, 
consistency and odor of the urine can usually be determined. Fre- 
quent attempts to urinate may indicate irritation of the urogenital 
organs, calculi in the urinary channels and peritonitis. Blood in 
the urine is indicative of nephritis, calculi, cystitis or injury of 
the urethra. If the blood is thoroughly admixed with the urine, 
the hemorrhage has probably occurred in the kidney. If the blood 
occurs in the first urine voided the hemorrhages have been in the 
urethra, and if the blood occurs in the last urine voided and is more 
or less coagulated, the hemorrhage has probably been in the bladder. 
The urine will probably be of a dark color in febrile diseases. Uri- 
nation will be less frequent and there will be less urine voided in 
anima's affected with diarrhea. Incontinence of urine may be 
observed in some nervous disorders, particularly in paralysis. 

The testicles of boars are readily examined but excepting the ex- 
ternal genitals the sexual organs of sows are not easily examined. 
Unusual sexual desire and irregular periods of estrum, are not un- 
tonimon in sows that have aborted, and are probably the result of 
disease of the ovaries, fallopian tubes or uterus. Vaginal discharge 
is common for from one to three weeks in sows that have aborted. 
In the beginning the discharges in these cases are of a bloody 
character but later become purulent. 

Inflammation of the udder may occur in sows that are heavy 
milkers. This condition is caused by incomplete milking out of the 
udder by the pigs, by injury or by infection. Tubercular and 
actinomycotic infection of the mamnme are relatively common in 
sows. 

NERVorS DISORDERS 

Disturbances of the nervous system of swine have not been ex- 
tensively investigated. Functional disturbances of the brain are 
observed in pigs, and are probably most frequently the result of in- 



52 iSWlNE PRACTKE 

toxieatioii or irritation induced by intestinal parasites. \'ieiousness 
in boars is sometimes classed as a disturbance of cerebral function. 
Epilepsy or a closely allied condition has been obserA^ed in swint-. 
This condition is characterized by restlessness, muscular tremors, 
champing- of the teeth, falling and extension and frequent jerking of 
the legs and liead. A condition designated as dentition eclampsia 
sometimes occurs in pigs and is apparently the result of irritation 
due to eruption of teeth. Chorea may occur in swine. 8o-ealled 
Idind staggers has also been observed in swine. 

Swine may be tested for tuberculosis, the intradermal test being 
the one commoidy api)lied to swine. The tubcfculin is injected into 
the skin of tlie car on the posterosuperior surface. 

Rabies is not uncommon in swine. The usual disturbances of the 
nervous system that characterize the disease are observed in these 
animals. 

Autopsy 

An autopsy is a systematic examination of the various organs ami 
tissues of a cadaver made for the purpose of determining the cause 
of death. Autopsy, postmortem and uecrojisy are synonymous terms 
and are used interchangeably. 

The value of autopsy findings cannot be overestimated. Symp- 
toms of several infective diseases of swine are so similar that it is 
not possible to make a ditferential diagnosis without an autopsy. 
The successful practitioners verify their clinical diagnoses by the 
lesions evidenced in autopsies. Many practitioners have needlessly 
immunized hogs against hog cholera, without beneficial results, be- 
cause the symptoms manifested were similar to the symptoms of hog 
cholera, but had an autopsy been made a proper diagnosis would 
have been established and the swine owner saved the expense incurred 
by immunization. Excepting in extraordinary cases, it is inadvis- 
able to make a positive diagnosis of any infective disease of swine, 
without the knowledge gained by a carefiil autojjsy. Tn conducting 
autopsies, it is advisable to follow some definite plan which will 
facilitate the work and preserve the knowledge obtained in tangible 
form. 

OBTAIN PERMISSION AND vrTIIOKITV 

Before beginning an autopsy permission should he obtained from 
the owner of the animal, and one sho\dd be certain that there are 
no laws prohibiting a postmortem examination in such cases. 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 58 



THE SUBJECT FOR AUTOPSY 



Cadavers are usually available for autopsy purposes, particularly 
when an infective disease exists in a herd of hogs. A cadaver 
selected for autopsy purposes should have been dead only a very 
short time. A live animal showiug marked symptoms is preferable 
to a cadaver for autopsy pnrj^oses, particularly for the veriticatiou 
of a diagnosis. When a living animal is selected for an autopsy 
the method of destruction must be such that the lesions will not be 
materially changed. ]Most infective diseases are of an inflammatory 
nature, consequently the lesions contain excessive quantities of blood. 
If one is desirous of haviug the lesions in such cases stand out promi- 
nently, the animal should not be destroyed bj^ bleeding. There is, 
however, sufficient blood retained in such lesions that they can readily 
be indentified even after the animal has been destroyed by bleeding, 
and unless there is some special reason such eases may be destroyed 
by bleeding. Cases in which the brain is to be examined should not 
be destroyed by shooting in the l)rain or crushing the skull by a 
blunt object. 

In making medico-legal examinations, it is advisable to have wit- 
nesses, and when possible organs or parts showing characteristic 
lesions should be saved. 

Postmortem examinations should be made in daylight, excepting 
in extraordinary case>s. The cadaver should be placed so that the 
operator can perform the autopsy conveniently. 

EQUIPMENT 

Proper clothing should be provided. Obstetrical rubberoid suits, 
or suits made of some other similar material, will be found con- 
venient and efficient. Tlie shoes should also be protected or sub- 
stituted by rubber boots or special apparel. Some prefer to wear 
rubber gloves and thus protect the hands. All clothing required 
should be kept in an autopsy case, and should not be used for other 
purposes. 

Innumerable instruments are recommended for an autopsy kit. 
The instruments selected will necessarily be determined by each 
individual's preference. Instruments should be selected that are 
of use and can be sterilized. Two or three knives, one relatively 
large, a saw or cleaver, some forceps, blunt and sharp-pointed scis- 
sors and needles are required, and several other instruments may 



54 



SWINE PRACTICE 



be used and found convenient. An improvised table will be found 
to be very convenient in autopsying pigs. 

After tlie autopsy has been completed all fragments and j)ortions 
of organs should be carefully segregated for their proper disposal. 
Specific instructions should be given the owner or caretaker for clean- 
ing and disinfecting the pens or sheds that may have been contamin- 
ated by the carcass or during the autopsy. All autopsy equipment, 
including instruments and clothing, should be properly cleaned and 
disinfected before leaving the premises unless special provision is 
available for disinfection at the veterinarian's olKce, when a special 
ease should be provided into which all erpiipment for future disin- 
fection should l)e placed at once. 

All records slioidd be comjilctcd during the autopsy, and it is 
advisable to have a carbon copy made, whicii may be left with the 
owner. 

RECORDS 

A complete description of the case from the clinical history to 
the deductions as to the cause of death should be recorded. The fol- 
lowing form will l)e found convenient for the keeping of autopsy 
records : 



Owner 



Breed 



Historv 



Address 



Animal 



Age 



Color 



Sex 



Symptoms 






Date of Death 192 


hour 


M. 


Date of Autopsy 192 


hour M. 




Skin and Sub-cut. Tissue 


Superficial Lymph Glands 







Voluntary Muscles 
Peritoneum 



Stomach 



Intestine, small 



Intestine, large 



Liver 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 

Spleen 



DO 



Kidneys 


Bladder 




Abd. Lj'inph Glands 






Genital Organs 


Pleura 


Lungs 




Hea*rt 


Vessels 




Thoracic Glands 


Brain and Spinal Cord 


Eye, Ear, Nose 


Bones 




Mouth 


Joints 




Other items noted 












Cause of Death 








Autopsy by 





TECIINIC 

The hog should be i)laced on its back and held by assistants or 
secured. The viscera of the abdomen and thorax may be exposed 
by removing a longitudinal Hap by means of parallel incisions 
extending from two to five inches on either side of the median line, 
depending upon the size of the animal and beginning about the 
pelvis and extending to the inferior cervical region, the sternum 
being a portion of the flap, can readily be separated at the sterno- 
costal junction. The viscera should then be examined in the order 
indicated in tlie record blank shown. 

S])e('im('n should be sclccltMJ from vai'ious organs during the prog- 
ress of the aut()i)sy in oi'dcr that a laboratory examination may be 
made if deemed advisable. Inoculation of culture tul)es can be 
made during the autopsy if the operator has provided such equip- 



56 SWINE PRACTICE 

ment. Should cultures be made they should be carefully labelled. 
Specimens collected to be sent to a laboratory should be typical 
lesions and sufficient in size so that they may be readily identified 
at the laboratory. In packing specimens to send to a laboratory, 
the following points should be observed : 

1. Wet specimens should be packed in a sufficient quantity of 
borax to prevent leakage of fluids. 

2. Select the container that renders the least chance of breakage. 

3. All packages should be plainly marked. 

4. Remember that postal laws reqiiire that fluids and similar 
materials be placed in properly sealed containers, which must be 
inclosed in a proper mailing case. 

5. Express regulations require that diseased tissues must be placed 
in a tin, zinc or other metal-lined box, that can be properly sealed. 

6. Specimens should l)e sent so they will reach the laboratory in 
the shortest possible time. If sent by parcel post, a special delivery 
stamp should be attached. 

7. Specimens of blood for agglutination test or for bacteriologic 
study should be collected in a clean sterile vial which can be properly 
sealed. At least 20 mil of blood should be sent for an agglutination 
test. 

8. Portions of tumors for microscopic examination may be ]iacke(l 
in borax or 10 per cent formalin, in a proper container. 

9. Parasites for identification may be placed in 10 per cent 
formalin or 25 per cent alcohol. 

10. A brain which is to be examined for rabies should be packed 
in borax. 

11. Blood smears may be made on microscopic slides, air dried, 
labelled and forwarded direct to the laboratory. 

12. Samples of pus or wound discharges are preferably collected 
in clean vials and enclosed in proper mailing cases. 

13. A descriptive letter of specimens sent, including the history, 
symptoms and autopsy findings and instructions as to the examina- 
tion desired, should accompany the specimens or be mailed at the 
same time. 

Restraint 

It is frequently necessary to restrain swine in making a clinical 
examination or for the purpose of medication. Swine are not cared 
for individually, excepting some higili class i)ure-bred animals, and 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 57 

may resent the manipulations necessary in making an examination. 
An occasional boar is found that is actually vicious, and the handling 
of such an animal entails some danger to the examiner if proper 
means of restraint are not used. Swine, although not easily dis- 
turbed and excited, will show an increased pulse-rate and respiration 
when caught and held and if they are run or excited they will show 
a rise of temperature. Therefore, for the purposes of a clinical 
examination it is desirable to restrain them by some method that 
will cause the least disturbance possible. In immunizing simultane- 
ously against hog cholera, the temperatures should be obtained and 
the procedure should be such as to cause the least possible variation 
from normal. 

In approaching swine, one should proceed slowly and if the swine 
can be scratched on the back or sides, repeating the process should 
the animal run away, it will usually require only a few moments 
before the animal will lie down and permit of a general examination. 
Little pigs that have not been handled will not submit to the method 
above outlined, and it is usually necessary to catch and hold them 
before they can be carefully examined. Care should be exercised in 
catching little pigs, as they make known their captivity by squeal- 
ing which will irritate, and frequently make otherwise docile sows 
vicious. "When swine cannot be approached as above indicated, they 
should be driven into a small pen, or alley, or hurdles may be used 
to confine them in a small space where if care is used they can be 
manipulated, carefully observed and their temperatures obtained. 
Pens 6 ft. square or a little larger, when properly arranged in refer- 
ence to gates, provide a very convenient means of controlling pigs 
and shotes to obtain temperatures prior to hog-cholera immunization. 
Crates are now a common equipment on many farms and will be 
found convenient for confining a hog while making an examination. 
It is usually not difficult to drive a hog through properly arranged 
alleys into a crate. 

Vicious boars or other swine can usually be restrained by a snare 
made of wire, either plain or cabled, cord or rope that is placed over 
the upper jaw and then secured by fastening to a post or other object. 
The ensnared animal will invariably pull backward, making the snare 
taut. A twitch may be similarly employed. AVhen it is necessary 
to hold a hog by force it should be seized by a leg, the ears, or both, 
and thrown on its side. Large hogs can be thrown down by two 



58 SWINE PRACTICE 

men. One man sliould grasp a hind leg and the other man the ears, 
and by a qniek movement the hog is thrown onto its side, and it 
can be so held by placing one knee on its neck. This method of 
restraint causes struggling and excitement of the restrained animal 
and is therefore not advisable for the purpose of making a careful 
physical examination except for examination for scabies or other 
conditions in which there are no sj^stemic disturbances. If swine 
are difficult to catch in a large enclosure, they may be given a 
small quantity of feed and then caught by slipping up beliiud th,';n 
and seizing a hind leg. 

In some instances where hurdles, small pens or alleys are not 
available for confining swine, it may be necessary to snare the animals 
by means of a rope in which a noose is provided. Such a snare may 
be arranged over a trough and the hog be caught by the upper jaw, 
or the noose may be placed on the ground and the hog caught by 
the foot. 

Restraint of swine for medication and the successful administra- 
tion of medicaments offers considerable difficulty. When it is pos- 
sible, medicaments are administered in feed or water, and this method 
has been found to be efficacious in many instances and is desirable 
when proper results can be obtained. 

When medicaments are to be given by mouth, it may be necessary 
to use a speculum or gag to open the mouth. By the use of a metal 
dose syringe with a 4 to 6-iiicli nozzle, fluids may be administered 
without the use of a speculum or gag. Capsules containing drugs 
designed to destroy or expel worms, are usually administered by 
means of a swine balling gun. Such capsules are usually given to 
pigs weighing from 40 to 100 pounds. A convenient method of 
restraint for the purpose of giving capsules to this size pig, is to 
have an assistant seize the pig by both forelegs, straddle the pig's 
back and raise the pig sufficiently high so that the hind feet will 
remain on the ground. The pig will usually squeal, and the operator 
can then introduce the balling gun and deposit the capsule in th^ 
pig's pharynx. Care must be exercised in the giving of capsules by 
means of a balling gun, or the capsule may be deposited in the 
diverticulum or pocket in the superior part of the pharynx, or the 
gun may be thrust through the mucous membrane of the pharynx 
and cause serious troul)le. Extensive losses of pigs have occurred 
as a result of improper pdministration of capsules. Some prefer to 
use long forceps for the administration of capsules to pigs. 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 59 

In the immunization of swine against hog cholera, swine plague, 
mixed infection and pig scour, various devices have been recom- 
mended for restraining the animals. Small pigs and shotes weigh- 
ing up to 100 pounds may be restrained as for the administration of 
capsules. Some practitioners have found it convenient to use a V- 
shaped trough in which the animal is secured by hobbles or ropes or 
held by an assistant. The trough may be used in an almost vertical 
position or it may be placed in a horizontal position. When used 
in a horizontal position a loop of rope may be used to control the 
pig's head, by placing the loop over the head and an assistant plac- 
ing his foot on the other end and applying some traction to it. Such 
equipment does not require many assistants, and is usually so con- 
structed that it can be folded and carried by the practitioner. 
Special tables have been designed for this purpose, some of which 
are equipped with a scale for weighing the hog, thus enabling the 
operator to estimate the proper dosage. 

Medication 

The administration of drugs to swine, particularly by the mouth, 
is not always easily accomplished. When possible, it is advisable to 
mix the medicaments in feed or water. Unfortunately, there is inap- 
petence in the very cases in which medication is desired and the 
drugs cannot be administered in the food or drink. 

Giving medicine in the form of a drench may be done, providing 
the animal is properly restrained, but the outcome is always problem- 
atic, and this method of administration of medicaments should be 
resorted to only in those cases in which no other form of medication 
is possible. In giving a drench to swine the fluid should be given 
cautiously, permitting ample time for swallowing. Pigs and swine 
weighing up to 150 pounds may be restrained for drenching by 
having an assistant straddle the back of the animal and grasp both 
front legs and raise its head slightly. The drench should be admin- 
istered preferably through a tube or by means of a dose syringe, 
after gagging by means of a stick or speculum. Larger hogs may 
be restrained by throwing them and holding them in the decubital 
position, but it is always dangerous to administer a drench under 
such conditions. In most cases large hogs and even small swine 
may be hold by means of a snare, and the drenches administered 
by means of a metal dose syringe. It is always advisable, whether 



60 SWINE PRACTICE 

the dose syringe or tube method is used in drenching, to gag the 
animal by placing a stick between the upper and lower teeth or to 
use a speculum. The esopliagus of swine is readily dilatable, and it 
is possible for them to swallow capsules of considerable size; hence 
fluid medicaments are more safely administered in capsules. 

Solids in the powdered form may be administered, after restraining 
and gagging as above indicated, by the use of a powder spoon, care 
being taken to see that the medicament is deposited well back on 
the tongue. Such drugs, however, are best administered in capsule 
form. Vermifuge in capsules is now available and this is a convenient 
form in which to administer such a medicament. For the admin- 
istration of these capsules, swine should be restrained and gagged 
and the capsule deposited in the pharynx by a balling gun or a 
pair of long forceps. In the administration the operator must not 
lose sight of the fact that there is a cul-de-sac in the upper portion 
of the pharynx and the capsule must not be deposited in that cul- 
de-sac. The balling gun or forceps must not he forced through the 
pharyngeal membranes or serious results will follow because vermi- 
fuge capsules contain calomel and other chemicals that produce 
intense inflammation when deposited in the tissues. 

THE HYPODER.MIC SYRINGE 

The most convenient method of administering drugs to swine is 
by the use of the hypodermic syringe. The active principles of many 
of the essential drugs are now available in tablet form which when 
dissolved are administered liypodermatically. By a careful selection 
of hypodermic tablets the practitioner may avoid the use of drenches 
in swine. Injections of such drugs must be made intramuscularly, 
into the axillary space or the peritoneal cavity. Hypodermic injec- 
tions in swine are slowly absorbed, if absorbed at all, because of 
the subcutaneous layer of fat. Anti-hog cholera serum and virus 
and the various bacterins are administered by means of a hypo- 
dermic syringe. 

Intraperitoneal injection, although not a common practice, is a 
means of medication that should be more generally employed. Swine 
are not very susceptible to peritonitis and injections of any ordinary 
drugs or biologies may be made without injury. Intraperitoneal 
medication has the advantage of rapid absorption which makes this 
method of medication advantageous. 



GENERAL SWINE MANAGEMENT 61 

Rectal injections are sometimes resorted to in swine. This method 
is used in the administration of chloral hydrate for the purpose of 
l)rodncing- anesthesia. In the use of rectal injections the quantity 
of fluid injected should not he sufficient to produce excessive dilata- 
tion. 

Medication through the air passages is indicated in pulmonary 
strongylosis and probably also in certain cases of chronic bronchitis. 
This method of medication is available only with those drugs that 
can be readily vaporized. For the purpose of applying this form 
of medication it will be necessary to provide a reasonably air-tight 
box, or room if several animals are to be treated, into which the 
vapors of the medicament are introduced through a pipe or tube. 
The medicament should be contained in a bucket with a large tin 
funnel inverted over the top, and the small end of the funnel con- 
nected to a tube extending into the box or room containing the 
;)atients. The vaporization is accomplished by means of a coal oil 
or gasoline stove. 

Anesthesia 

Generally speaking, anesthesia is seldom resorted to in swine. 
Most books on surgery and articles in periodicals rarely more than 
mention swine anesthesia. Possibly this is due to the fact that 
surgical operations in swine are not common. Certain conditions 
develop in swine in which surgical interference becomes a necessity; 
therefore some definite method of anesthetizirg is of distinct ad- 
vantage. 

INDICATIONS 

Anesthesia in swine is indicated in all cases requiring major 
surgical operations, such as cesarean section, and removal of: a 
scirrhous cord. 

ANESTHETICS AND ADMINISTRATION 

Chloroform has been used and it sometimes produces desirable 
results. The A. C. E. mixture is less dangerous and usually as 
effective as chloroform. Swine are rather susceptible to chloroform, 
and the various chloroform combinations and such agents must be 
used with care, otherwise, poisoning and death may occur. When 
chloroform or the A. C. E. mixture is used, it should be given 
slowly by inhalation and considerable ([uantities of air must l)e 
admitted to prevent poisoning. 



62 SWINE PRACTICE 

Ether may be used for a general anesthetic in swine but must be 
carefully administered. 

Chloral hydrate is a narcotic that is probably more applicable to 
swine, as it is much less dangerous than chloroform or ether. Chloral 
is easily administered in solution by rectal injection. The usual 
dose is one dram per 100 pound weight of the hog. It requires 
about twenty minutes to produce stupor, although in some cases 
profound narcosis will result within twenty minutes after the chloral 
has been administered. 

Some practitioners use a combination of chloral and chloroform, 
administering the chloroform about fifteen to twenty minutes after 
the chloral is injected. This combination should be employed in 
cases in which it is necessary to maintain anesthesia for a long- 
period of time. 

Other practitioners have reported good results from the admin- 
istration of H. M. C. tablets dissolved and injected into the ear vein. 
The dosage for a mature animal is one tablet composed of hyoscin 
1-100 grain, morphin !4 grain and cactoid 1-64 grain. About fifteen 
minutes are required after the injection before the influence of the 
drug is noted and operations such as cesarean section can be done 
within twenty to twenty-five minutes. 



CHAPTER 11 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



Anatomic consideration 
Physiologic consideration 

JMoiith and its associated parts 
Lips 



^lalformations 

Cheilitis.. 

Tumors 



r Catarrhal 
Suppurative 
Diphtheritic 
Vesicular 



Tongue 

Foreign Ixxlies and injuries 
Glossitis 
Tumors 
Parasites 
Buccal .Alemhrane 



catarrlui 



Intiammation -^ phlegmonous 

Epizootic aphthae 
Scurvy 



r acute 
1 chronic 



vesicular 
diphtheritic 



Teeth 

Parotitis 

Tonsils 

Pharynx 

Injury rcatarrhal 

Inflammation J phlegmonous 

Paralysis I diphtheritic 

Tumors 

Esophagus 

Malformations 
Stenosis 
Dilatation 
Perforation 



64 



SWINE PKACriCE 



Intiammatioii 

Tumors 
Aberration of appetite 
JStomaeli 

Malfoniiatioiis 

Foreiy'u liodies 

V^omition 

Anemia 

Hemorrhage 

Peptic ulcers 

Hyperemia 

Intiammal ion 



Dilatation 
acute 
chronic 
Tumors 
Parasites 
Intestines 

Malformations 

Hemorrhage 

Obstruction 

Dilatation 

Emphysema 

Inflammation 

Poisoning 

Parasites 
Tumors 
Diarrhea 
Constipation 

Prolapse — Anus and ivctiun 
Liver 

Malformations 
Foreign bodies 
Rupture 
Icterus 

Cloudy swelling- 
Fatty changes 
Amyloid changes 



['catarrhal 
J croupous 
I phlegmonous 



sodium chloride 

caustics 

phospliorns 

phenol 

corrosive sublimate 

cocklebur 

night shade 

garbage 

cryptogam 

cottonseed meal 



I)l(iE8TI\K SVSTP:iM 65 



Glycogenic cliaiiges 

Gall-stones 

Hyj)eremiH f suppurative 



Inrtanimation. 



] parenchymatous 
chronic interstitial 
acute interstitial 
Tumors 
Parasites 
Pancreas 
Peritoneum 
Injuries 
Ascites 
Inflammation 
Tumors 
Farasites 

ANATOMIC CONSIDERATION 

Mouth 

The mouth in swine is relatively large due tu the extension well 
backward of the labial fissures. The upper lip blends imperceptibly 
with the nose, forming the snout. The lower lip is short, closely 
adherent to the maxillae and distinctly pointed. The cheeks are 
proportionally small because of the deep labial fissures. The hard 
palate is long and has a median groove, on each side of which are 
about twenty ridges. 

The soft palate is thick, about 21/2 inches long and is nearly hori- 
zontal. There may be a rudimentary median prolongation of the 
soft palate. On either side of the oral surface there is a groove 
and laterally there are raised areas — the tonsils which extend on 
to the lateral walls and tongue. 

Tongue 

The tongue is long, relatively narrow and thin at the tip. The 
mucous membrane lining the li])s, cheeks and covering the hard 
l^alate is relatively smooth. 

Salivary Glands 

T(trotid (jlands. — These glands are tiiaiigular in shape, located at 
the base of tlie ear. The duct discharges opposite the upper fourth 
01" fifth molar. 



66 



SWINE PRACTICE 



;St(bni(i.riUaffj (jhiitds. — These glaiuls are smaller than the parotid 
and are of a darker eolor and their duets diseharge near the fraenuiu 
linguae. 

SuhJi)i[H(al ghouls. — These glands eonsist of two parts on eilhei- 




Alilk nipper 
l\lilk middle incisor 
Milk corner incisor 
Milk canine 



Fig. 12. Dentition of lower jaw of three-months-old pig. (Ostertag). 

side and are located near the angle of the maxilla. One portion of 
the glands terminates in a single duet which discharges near the 
duct of the submaxillary gland. The other portion — the true sub- 
lingual gland — is relatively tiat and is located anterior to the former. 




Milk nipper and middle in- 
cisor 



Milk corner incisor 
ililk canine 



Fig. 13. Dentition of upper jaw of three-months-old pig. with milk nip- 
pers, corners and canines: middle incisors just breaking through. (Os- 
tertag). 

The secretion from this portion of the sublingual discharges through 
six or eight openings along the lower portion of the dental arcade. 

Teeth 

The hog possesses the typical numl)er of teeth for mammals. Nor- 
mal pigs have eight temporary teeth when farrowed: four incisor 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



and four oaniiie, or tuslu^s. The foruuila for the temporary teeth 
is as folloAvs: 

2(1 ICiPM |)=32 




Permanent nipper 



Permanent middle 
incisor 



Permanent corner 
incisor 



Permanent canine 



Fig. 14. Dentition of an 18-montlis-old pig (upper jaw) with permanent 
incisors only. (Ostertag). 

The upper permanent ineisors are distiuetly separated from eaeh 
other and there is eonsiderable spaee between the lateral ineisor 
and the canines. The lower incisors are nearly horizontal. The 



Permanent 
middle 
incisor 




Permanent nipper 



Permanent 

middle incisor 



Permanent 

corner incisor 



PeriTianent canine 



Fig. 15. Dentition of lower jaw of an 18-months-old pig. with permanent 
incisors only. (Ostertag). 



68 SWINE PRACTICE 

incisors are covered with enamel. The canines, or tnshes, are larger 
in the boar. In extreine cases the npper canines may reaeli a length 
of 4 inches and the lowers 8 to 10 inches. These teeth are relatively 
small in sows. 

The first premolars are separated by a space from the canines and 
are relatively small. The premolars increase in size from the tirst 
to the fourth. The first and second molars are larger than the 
fourth premolar, but the third molar is relatively small. 

The foi'mula for the permanent teeth is as follows : 

2(UC|PM|M I) =44 

The average periods of ernption of the teeth of swine, according 
to Sisson, is as follows : 

Temporary. Permanent 

I^ 2-4 weeks 12 months 

T [ upper — 2-8 months 

^ yower— 111.-2 months 16-20 months 

I3 Before birth 8-10 months 

C Before birth...: 9-10 months 

PMj 5 months 

PM, 5-7 weeks 

P]\r /upper — 4-8 days 

1 lower — 2-4 weeks 

PM r upper — 4-8 days 

1 lower — 2-4 weeks 

^^1 4-6 months 

M, 8-12 months 

M3 18-20 months 

PHARYNX 

The pharynx is an irregular cavity common to the digestive and 
respiratory system and is located posterior to the posterior nares 
and mouth and anterosuperior to the larynx and esophagus. There 
is a median fold of mucous membrane sui^criorly, on either side 
of which is the opening of the eustachian tube. In tlie posterior 
portion of the pharynx there is a cnl-de-sac, which is the source 
of much annoyance in the administration of capsules. 



12-15 months 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



69 



Esophagus 

The esophagus is short and of relatively large caliber. According 
to some authorities objects, from IVo to 2 inches in diameter, can 
pass through the esophagus readily. The mucous membrane of the 
anterior portion is richly su])plied with mucous glands. 

Stomach 

The stomach of swine is simple but relatively large. There is a 
cardiac and pyloric portion but the division is not distinctly out- 



Sniall intestine 



.Stomach covered 
with omentum 




Fig. 16. Stomach and intestine of swine after complete opening of the 

abdomen. (Ostertag). 



70 



SWINE PRACTICE 



lined. Tliere is a eiil-ck-sac at the esophageal openino- into tlie 
cardiac division. The niucous nieuihrane varies in ehai-acter in dif- 
ferent portions of the stomach. The mucosa snrronnding the esopha- 
g-eal opening- partakes of the nature of the esophageal mucosal meni- 




Stomach covered 
with onientuni 



E.sophagus 



Tongue 



Fig. 17. Stomach and intestine of swine after incomplete opening of tlie 

abdomen. (Ostertag). 



hrane. The cardiac nnicosa is thin and of a pale gray color. The 
fundus gland area located in the greater curvature between the 
cardiac and pyloric portions, is characterized by a thick mucous 
membrane of a deep red color. The pyloric mucosa is relatively 
thin and is of a pale pink color. 



DIGESTJVE SYSTEM 



71 



Intestine 

The capacity of the intestine is rehitively less than the intestine 
of herbiverons animals. 

Small intestine. — The small intestine is abont 60 feet in leny'th 
in mature swine. The mesentery of the small intestine varies from 
2 inches in length in the first portion (duodenum) to 7 or 8 inches 
long in the latter portion (ileum). The bile duct opens about 2 
inches from the ]5yloric opening and the pancreatic duct about 5 
inches beyond it. Band-like masses of lymphoid tissue composing 
Peyer's patclies and solitary follicles are usually prominent and 




Mesentery 



Fig. 18. Exenterated stomach, intestiii*^ and spleen of swine. (Ostertag). 



easily observed, beginning about 20 inches beyond the pylorus and 
continuing into the cecum. The small intestine is divided for descrip- 
tion into three parts designated from the stomach backward: duo- 
denum, jejunum and ileum. 

Large intestine. — The large intestine of a mature hog is about 



72 



SWINE PRACTICE 



fourteen feet in length. This portion of the intestine is of much 
larger caliber than the small intestine. The large intestine is divided 
for descriptive purposes into three sections: the cecum, colon and 
rectum. The cecum is about ten inches in length, terminates in a 



Preputial sheath 



Pharynx and 
Larynx 



Tongue 




Rectum 
(Cut through 1 



Liver (upper line 
at ends of diii- 
gram) 



Fig. 19. Liver of hog in natural itaiuection with diaphragm, also urino- 
genital organs in natural position. (Ostertag). 



blind end and is joined by the ileum and communicates with the 
colon in its upper portion. Fever's patches usually extend into the 
cecum and there are three longitudinal muscular bands in the cecum. 
The colon is about twelve feet in length and is arranged in three 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



78 



double spiral coils. There are two incomplete longitudinal bands 
in the eolou. The mucous membrane contains many solitary follicles, 
and Pej^er's patches may extend into the first portion of the colon. 
The rectum is twelve to fifteen inches in length and is usually sur- 
rounded with fat. 

Liver 

The liver of swine is relatively large, weighing about four pounds 
in a mature animal. It is centrally located although the major 
portion is to the right of the median line. It is of a brownish red 
color and the lobules are usually distinctly outlined. The central 
portion is thick, the margins thin, and it is divided into four prin- 

I.iver lobules 




Fig. 20. Piece of swine liver showing lobules. (Ostertag). 



cipal lobes by three fissures. The gall-bladder is located in a 
depression on the posterior surface of the right central lobe. The 
posterior vena cava passes through the substance of the liver and 
enters the thorax through a notch. The liver is maintained in its 
])osition by the other viscera and two coronary ligaments, although 
rudiments of other ligaments are sometimes present. 

Pancreas 

The pancreas is irregularly triangular in shape and is attached 
to the duodenum. The pancreatic duct passes through the duodenal 
wall opening about five inches from the pylorus. 



74 SWINE PRACTICE 

PHYSIOLOGIC CONSIDERATION 
Digestion 

By digestion is ordinarily meant the bringing into solution of 
materials that are consumed as food. Swine, in their natural state, 
feed from substances obtained by rooting, the feeds consisting of 
roots, nuts, etc. For this purpose, nature provided swine with a 
long snout, well supported, and a lower lip that is pointed and 
rather mobile. By breeding and selecting and providing ample food, 
the structure of the swine snout has been altered. The natural 
habit of rooting is readily prevented by ringing. 

The prehension of food by swine is accomplished by means of the 
snout and lower lips, the teeth of swine are not well adapted for 
grazing. The mastication of food by swine is not thorough, as they 
usually swallow the food almost as rapidly as it is prehended. The 
esophagus of swine permits the passage of relatively large masses, 
which further relieves the necessity of thorough mastication. 

Gastric digestion of meats and allied products is not as perfect in 
swine as in carnivorous animals, and the digestion of vegetable sub- 
stances is not as perfect in swine as in herbiverous animals. The 
food is not completely mixed in the stomach for several hours and, 
according to investigators, the type of digestion differs in the cardiac 
and pyloric portion of the stomach. In the cardiac portion of the 
stomach, starch is converted into sugar by the action of saliva. 
Lactic fermentation is also occurring at the same time. Digestion 
of albumin occurs in the pyloric portion of the stomach but usually 
does not begin until three or four hours after consumption of food 
and continues for several hours thereafter. 

Bile is secreted in quantities ranging from 1000 to 1200 grams 
per day. There are no digestive ferments in the bile of swine, but 
it has the property of emulsifying fats. Hih- of swiiie is greenish 
yellow or yellowish brown, is odorless and alkaline in reaction. 

The pancreas of swine, as in other animals, apparently has periods 
of rest, during which no pancreatic juice is secreted. "While active, 
this gland produces from five to ten grams of pancreatic juice per 
hour. Pancreatic juice contains ferments that digest fats and albu- 
minous substances and that also emulsify fat. Intestinal digestion, 
therefore, includes the peptonization of albuminoids, the conversion 
of starch into sugar and the emulsification of fats. The reaction 
of the first portion of the intestine in swine is acid and the latter 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM iO 

portion is neutral or alkaline. The intestinal movements in sw^ine 
are similar to those in the horse. 

The Mouth and Its Associated Parts 

The mouth of swine is prone to injuries and infeetion because 
they are likely to ingest foods in various states of refinement, and 
not infrequently they consume foreign bodies that may produce 
such injuries as contusions and lacerations. The comfort and health 
of swine are not alw^ays considered by the feeder, who may thought- 
lessly give foods sufficiently hot or cold to produce damage to ili • 
buccal mucous membrane. Injuries to this membrane are predis- 
posed to infection that may produce pathologic conditions, varying 
from simple inflammation to suppuration or even necrosis. 

Lips 

MALFORMATIONS 

Malformations of the lips of swine are not rare, the most frequenr 
malformation lieing the condition popularly termed harelip 
(schistosis lahia). This condition is rarely observed in mature swine, 
because the defect renders nursing extremely difficult and frequently 
impossible ; such pigs, therefore, die before they have passed the 
inn'siug stage. Schistosis labia, when not associated with other 
developmental errors, can usually be sufficiently relieved by surgical 
interference that the pig can suckle and develop to maturity. 

In operating to relieve harelip the fibrous tissue on either side of 
the fissure should be dissected away and the skin surfaces freshened, 
after which the fissure is closed by suturing with silk. It may be 
necessary to feed the pigs for two or three days after the operation. 

CHEILITIS 

The lips are also subject to injuries inflicted by rough foods or 
by foreign bodies in the food. Wounds, too, may be inflicted by 
dogs. Because of their location, lip wounds are predisposed to 
infection. Inflammatory processes of the lips are usually confined 
to the mucous surface. 

Catarrhal cJieilitis is of rather common occurrence, particularly 
in small pigs, and may be either acute or chronic. This condition 
is usually caused by improper food or by undue exposure to very 



76 SWINE PRACTICE 

dry atmosphere. The lesions of the acute type consist of small 
crevices which in extreme cases may bleed freely. In the chronic 
type the cracks and crevices become more extensive and the sur- 
rounding tissues are infiltrated with varying quantities of newly 
formed fibrous tissue. Catarrhal cheilitis, either acute or chronic, 
is not a serious condition and is usually corrected when the cause 
is removed. The irritated infected areas of the lips should be thor- 
oughly cleaned with a lukewarm 1 per cent solution of salt, after 
which it is advisable to apply some antiseptic. 

Suppurative cheilitis is occasionally ol)served. It is usually the 
result of infection of the subsurface labial tissues with pyogenic 
bacteria. The usual form of this type of cheilitis is circumscribed, 
and the lesions are similai" to the lesions observed in the usual abscess 
formation. This condition is relieved by operation. The small ab- 
scesses should be opened freely with a sharp-pointed bistoury and 
the pus removed, after which the wound should he painted with 
tincture of iodin. 

Necrotic cheilitis is very prevalent in some sections of the United 
States, particularly in young pigs. The usual causative agent is 
the Bacillus necrophorus. This microorganism produces a variety 
of lesions and is of so great economic importance that all of the dis- 
ease processes resulting from it will be discussed under tlie topic, 
' ' Necrobacillosis. ' ' 

Yesicular cheilitis has been reported as occurring in suckling pigs. 
This condition is probably caused by a yeast, the o'idium albicans. 
The lesions of vesicular cheilitis are practically confined to the 
mucous surfaces of the lips. Tlie mucous membrane is tumefiecl 
and scarlet red in color, and in the beginning and later small, 
sharply circumscribed vesicles appear and the mucosa becomes white, 
due to the accumulated desquamated epithelium and mucus. The 
vesicles rupture and the vesicular membrane may slough, leaving a 
denuded surface, or the vesicular membrane may collapse after the 
discharge of its contents and ap])ear as a small, white mass upon the 
mucous membrane. This condition is usually not serious, although 
it may cause considerable inconvenience in sucking. It is usually 
relieved by the topical application of properly selected antiseptics. 

TUMORS 

Labial tumors are not of common occurrence in swine, although 
' liroma, myxoma, and epithelioma have been observed. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ( I 

Tongue 

The tongue is subject to injuries of various types. Tongue injuries 
may be inflicted by improper food, by foreign bodies in the food, 
or by sharp, irregular teeth. 

The symptoms of injuries or foreign bodies in the tongue consist 
of persistent champing of the teeth, moving the head from side to 
side while preheiiding or cliewing food and more or less ptyalism. 
When such symptoms are evidenced a thorough examination should 
be made after the animal has been properly restrained. The pro- 
cedure for relief will depend upon the causative factor. Xails, 
si)linters, or other foreign bodies should be removed and the wound 




Fig. 21. GLOSSITIS. This tongue taken from an apparently normal hog, 
contained twenty-four polished nails lodged in one place. 

swabbed with tincture of iodin. Ragged edges of lacerated wounds 
should be removed before antiseptics are applied. 

GLOSSITIS 

Intiammatory disturbances of the tongue may involve the mucous 
membrane only or the submucous muscular portion of the tongue. 
The inflammations of the lingual mucous membrane are practically 
identical with those of the lips and wnll not be given further con- 
sideration. Inflammation of the lingual musculature is usually the 
sequel of an injury which had provided an avenue of entrance for 
infection. Inflammation of the substructures of the tongue may be 



78 SWINE PRACTICE 

acute or chronic, diffuse or circumscribed, nonsuppurative or sup- 
purative. 

Diffuse nonsuppurative suhsurface glossitis is usually acute and is 
the result of infection with streptococci or some septic microorganism. 
The lesions in this type of glossitis consist of a diffuse, extensive 
tumefaction of the tongue, which on section evidences enlargement 
of the blood vessels and abundant accumulations of pus, or other 
inflammatory products, between the muscle bundles, while the mus- 
cle tissue presents a parboiled appearance. 

Acute circumscribed suhsurface suppuratire glossitis partakes of 
the nature of an abscess. 

Chronic glossitis is most frequently diffuse and is exemplified in 
cases of diffuse lingual actinomycosis. The lesions consist primarily 
of an excessive quantity of fibrous tissue which may contract un- 
equally in different portions of the tongue, thus producing an irregu- 
larity of the surface of the organ. Portions of the tongue in which 
excessive quantities of fibrous tissues are developed become dense 
and hard, and cut with considerable resistance. 

The symptoms evidenced in acute glossitis are difficulty of pre- 
liension and mastication, irregular movements of the head, champ- 
ing of the teeth, and in extreme cases refusal of food and drink 
and the dribbling of saliva or saliva mixed with pus and in some 
instances there will be more or less blood mixed with the saliva. 

Diffuse suppurative glossitis is not common. It should be treated 
by mild antiseptics, using agents that are not injurious should they 
be swallowed. Abscesses of the tongue when so located that it is 
possible to operate, can be relieved by making a good free incision 
(lengthwise of the tongue) and permitting the pus to escape, after 
which the wound should l)e swabbed with tincture of iodin. Acti- 
nomycosis of the tongue may be diagnosed by examination of pus, 
providing pus centers have formed and there is no great develoji- 
ment of fibrous tissue. These cases may be relieved by the admin- 
istration of potassium iodid in 10 to 15 grain doses once daily for 
a period of ten days, then withholding the medicine for ten days 
and repeating for another ten-day period. 

TUMORS 

Lingual tumors are relatively inicommon, but retention or obstruc- 
tion cvsts have been observed. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 79 



PARASITES 



Parasitic invasion of the tongue is not uncommon. The cystic 
form of the Taenia solium, that is, the cysticercns cellulosse, fre- 
quently occurs in the muscular i)ortion of the tongue. The cystic 
form of the Trichinella has also been observed in lingual muscles, 
while psorosperms occasionally inhabit the muscle of the tongue. 
The cysticercns cellulosse may be identified if the cysts are located 
superficially. They are a tritie smaller than a navy bean and palpa- 
tion, if they are of recent development, will demonstrate that they 
contain tluid, and if a cyst be punctured the bladder worm aud tinid 
will escape. 

The cystic form of the Trichinella produces an inflammation which 
is at first acute but later becomes chronic. 

Swine affected with cysticercosis or trichinosis cannot be relieved 
and should be slaughtered where there is proper inspection to safe- 
guard the meat-consuming public. 

Buccal Membrane 

The mucous membrane of the mouth, other than that mentioned 
in relation to the lips and tongue, is subject to injuries of a similar 
origin and nature and will not be further discussed here. 

STOMATITIS 

Catarrhal inflammation of the buccal mucous membrane is rela- 
tively common and may be local or general, acute or chronic. 

Acute catarrhal stomatitis is usually caused by the ingestion of 
improper food, although it may be associated with some general 
infective disease or be the result of injury. 

Fermented foods may contain acids or other injurious chemical 
substances that irritate the buccal mucosa and produce inflamma- 
tion. Foods containing awns, beards, thorns, glass, or other foreign 
bodies, may produce injuries of the membrane of the mouth, thus 
providing an avenue of entrance for various microbial! agents. Dis- 
infecting solutions such as phenol, dips and corrosive sublimate, 
may contaminate feed troughs or feed and may be sufficiently irri- 
tating to produce stomatitis. Too concentrated medicine may also 
produce stomatitis. Irritation may be caused by moldy feeds. The 
practice of catching swine by means of a rope or wire over the 



80 sWjNe PracTjck 

upper jaw is very likely to produce injury to the buccal mucous 
membrane. 

Symptoms : The affected mucous membrane is in the beginning 
tumefied and increased in redness, and later the surface becomes 
coated by the accumulation of desquamated epithelium and mucus. 
Gradually this surface coating loosens and sloughs as the inflam- 
mation diminishes in intensity. The affected animals refuse to eat 
or eat sparingly, and usually select soft foods. Although they may 
attempt to chew hard substances, as a rule they drop them quickly to 
the ground. Salivation is always present, and in extreme cases an 
offensive odor may be detected. 

Treatment : The treatment consists in cleansing the affected parts 
with antiseptics and applying an astringent, such as myrrh. The 
affected animals should be given mucilaginous fluids, soft foods, and 
a good supply of clean, cool water. 

Chronic catarrhal stomatitis is caused by the continuous or pro- 
longed action of some relatively mild irritant. 

Lesions: This condition is associated with fibrous proliferation 
in the submucosa, which in the early stages of the disease results 
in tumefaction of the mucosa. Later the newly formed fibrous 
tissue contracts. ])roducing an irregular surface. There is also a 
gradual atrophy of the mucosa and occasionally the cicatrized fibrous 
tissue obstructs the mucous gland ducts, thereby causing small reten- 
tion cysts. 

Chronic catarrhal stomatitis is manifested by continuous limited 
salivation and champing of the jaws. The treatment depends largely 
upon the progress of the disease. In all cases the cause should be 
determined and removed. Soft foods should be given, and mild 
astringent antiseptic washes may be used. 

Phlegmonous stomatitis is relatively common in swine. It is usually 
caused by a steptococcic infection of the submucosa. The condition 
is usually general, the affected mucosa is intensely swollen and in 
the beginning is scarlet red in color, later assuming a purplish hue, 
and finally a dull gray, due to the accumulation of desquamated 
epithelium, mucus, and pus. Patches of mucous membrane may 
become necrotic and slough, leaving a red surface from which blood 
escapes freely. The tumefaction may be so intense that the mouth 
cavity becomes noticeably diminished, and the cheek mucous mem- 
brane may be forced between the teeth and lacerated during masti- 
cation. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 81 

The attVc'ted aiiinials refuse to eat, and although they frequent 
the drinking trough, they aetually drink very little. There is a 
frothy, ill-smelling discharge from the mouth. There may be a rise 
in temperature of from one to three degrees Falirenheit. The treat- 
ment consists of mouth washes of antiseptics, frequently applied. 

Vfsicuhir and idcerative stoiiKiiili^ is carsed by the same agencies 
aiul i)]'eseiits lesions similar to vesicular cheilitis, and will not be 
further disi-ussed. 

Necrotic stomatitis is not luicommon, particularly in suckling pigs. 
The further discussion of this condition will be found under the 
topic, Necrobacillosis. 

Symptoms. — As above indicated, the symptoms of stomatitis of 
the various types vary only in intensity. There is more or less sali- 
vation and drooling, champing of jaws, and evidence of difficulty 
in mastication. On inspection the lesions will be evident, which are 
usually sufficient upon which to base a diagnosis. 

Treatment. — The treatment also varies with the type of inflam- 
mation. In all instances the cause should be removed, and in the 
infectious types there should be topical application of some suital)le 
antiseptic. 

EPlZdOTIC APHTHAE 

Foot-and-mouth disease of swine is manifested primarily by lesions 
of the feet, but the buccal mucous membrane and skin of the snout 
may be involved. The mouth lesions consist of vesicles of the mucous 
membrane of the lips and mouth. The vesicles vary in size and 
are usually of short duration. Tliere will invariably be involvement 
of the coronary bands and a general systemic disturbance which 
will be sufficient! evidence for differential diagnosis. A general 
description of this disease will be found in the chapter on infective 
diseases. 

SCHRVY 

This is a disease manifested by ulceration and hemorrhage of 
the gums, unthriftiness, and debility. It is of rather common occur- 
rence in young pigs. 

Etiology. — There appears to be no specific exciting cause of this 
condition. However, it usually occurs in pigs that are improperly 
fed, kept in insanitary quarters, or in pigs produced from continued 
inbreeding. 

Lesions. — Scurvy is characterized by progressive ulceration of the 



82 3WINE PRACTICE 

gums. These uleers are irregular, ragged, and bleed almost eoii 
stantly. Petechial hemorrhages may be found in the skin, and in 
the mucous and serous membranes. The liver and kidneys may 
show fatty changes. The spleen and lymph-nodes- are enlarged. 

Sy))ipto))is. — Progressive emaciation, dullness, diminished appetite, 
increased thirst, and a dislike to move, characterize scurvy. On 
inspection, gum ulcerations will be observed, and cutaneous hemor- 
rhages may also be visible. The disease is rather serious unless the 
cases are observed early. 

Teeth 

Defects of the teeth occur in swine and are in some cases respon 
sible for failure of development or loss of condition. Irregularities 
of the teeth frequently cause injurj^ to the tongue or buccal mucous 
membrane. 

Such disturbances are manifested by quidding of feed, salivation 
and unthriftiness. The method of producing relief in such cases 
will depend upon the nature of the irregularity. It may be neces- 
sary to extract one or more teeth, which is ordinarily not difficult 
to do if the hog is properly restrained. Foreign bodies may be 
lodged and become wedged between the teeth and produce a chain 
of symptoms as above enumerated. Foreign bodies can usually l)e 
removed with little difficulty by means of dressing forceps. 

The canine teeth, or tushes, frequently become very long, espe- 
cially in old boars, and they are sometimes used as a means of 
cffense. They can usually be cut off by means of bone forcepo o;- 
molar cutters, the animal being properly restrained. 

Little pigs frequently fight each other, producing scratches and 
injuries to the skin from their small sharp teeth. These injuries 
are of no consequence, unless they become infected. 

Parotid Glands 

Injuries of the parotid glands may occur. Tlie most frequent 
injuries are inflicted by dogs or they result from fighting. The care- 
less use of stanchions or pinchers in restraining swine may produce 
injuries of these glands. 

PAROTITIS 

Parotitis is rare in swine. This condition may be the sequel of 
an injury or it may occur as a result of extension of infection from 
the buccal mucosa. Inflammation of the parotid glands is mani- 
fested by swelling below the ear near the angle of the jaw. There 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 83 

is usually considerable pain when the gland area is palpated, and 
the animal may refuse to eat because of the distress occasioned by 
movement of the jaws. Jn docile swine the pain may be relieved 
by the local application of hot water or poultices. Soft slop foods 
should be provided. If an abscess develops it should be opened 
and treated as any ordinary abscess. 

Tonsils 

The tonsillar tissue of swine is })rone to either acute or chronic 
intlammation. 

TONSILLITIS 

Acute tonsillit'is is closely associated with acute pharyngitis, and 
the cause is probably most frequently infectious in character. The 
tonsillar tissue becomes tumefied and projects above the surface, 
while the buccal mucous membrane is hot and red. The affected 
animals are indisposed and dull, and have a tendency to extend 
the head and elevate the snout. There is usually a rise of tem- 
perature. Deglutition is difficult and may be associated with gag- 
ging and sometimes witli vomition. Tliere may be spasmodic 
coughing. 

The treatment consists, in the mild cases, in applying soothing 
astringents; in the more severe cases, tincture of iron chlorid may 
be used. Laxatives should be given to keep the bowels in an active 
state, and the animals should be placed in clean, well-ventilated 
quarters, and given liquid and easily digested foods. 

Chronic tonsillitis is less common than the acute form. It is 
characterized by distention of ths tonsillar tissue, by accumulated 
desiccated pus or by calcareous masses in the tonsillar crypts. 

Pharynx 

The pharynx, like the mouth, is subject to traumatisms and infec- 
tion. Probably the most frequent injury of the pharynx is due to 
the use of the balling gun. The cul-de-sac in the posterior portion 
of the pharynx is the usual location of injuries induced by the ball- 
ing gun. It is probable that in the majority of instances there is 
no direct injury inflicted but the capsule is deposited in the cul-de- 
sac and the capsule is soon dissolved and the contents liberated. 
If the capsule contained irritants or erosives, such as calomel, 
intense inflammation will be established. Not infrequently such 
drugs will erode the mucous membrane of the cul-de-sac and the 



84 SWINE PRACTICE 

inflammatory process thus extend into the peri-pharyngeal tissues. 
Less frequently tlie balling gun is forcibly tluirst into the pharyn- 
geal cul-de-sac and the mucous membrane is lacerated or injured. 

The symptoms manifested in swine in which the cul-de-sac has 
been injured direct by means of a balling gun or indirectly by th? 
deposit of a capsule, develop rapidly, being very evident within a 
few hours. The affected animal coughs more or less continuously, 
because of the irritation of the pharyngeal mucosa. If a capsule 
be deposited into the cul-de-sac it will be very difficult for the 
affected animal to remove it. It will cause labored breathing and 
wheezing. Within 12 to 18 hours there will be marked swelling in 
the cervical region. The animal by this time is usually unable to 
swallow and dies apparently of asphyxiation. 

The lesion found in these cases will consist of inflammation of 
varying intensity in the peripharyngeal tissue and if the tissues 
are carefully dissected, the origin of the inflammatory process may 
be traced to the pharyngeal cul-de-sac, where lacerations may be 
found and where the evidence of the contents of the capsule can be 
observed. 

PHARYNGITIS 

Inflammation of the pharyngeal mucosa is relatively common in 
swine. This condition is frequently associated with laryngitis. 
Pharyngitis is probably most common in the early spring and 
especially in swine that are out in pasture where they have access 
to cold water, which is a common cause of the condition. It is 
reported to be relatively common in mountainous sections, probably 
because of the cold water in the mountain streams. 

Pharyngitis is not confined to swine of any particular age but 
affects mature hogs, feeders and little pigs. 

Three different types according to lesions of the pharyngitis have 
been recognized in swine: catarrhal, ])lilegmonous and necrotic or 
diphtheritic. 

Catarrhal pharyngitis is the most common type of inflammation, 
and may be either acute or chronic. The usual cause of the disease 
is improper food, cold water or uudue exposure, although it may 
be caused by infection. 

The mucous membrane of the pharynx affected with acute catarrh 
is in the beginning drv and scarlet red. later becoming tumefied and 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 85 

coated with epithelium and mucus, which occasioually (h'squaiiiates, 
leaving- denuded areas. 

If the causative agent persists the condition becomes, chronic. 
The chronic condition is evidenced by fibrous proliferation in the 
submucosa resulting, first, in tumefaction, and then in protrusion 
of the pharyngeal mucosa, which may, by contraction of the newly 
formed fibrous tissues result in a corrugation of the mucous mem- 
brane, or the newly formed fibrous tissues may be so extensive that 
the pharyngeal mucosa becomes uniformly tumefied, dense and hard. 
In either case the epithelium of the mucous membrane becomes 
atrophied, leaving only a thin covering, usually of a squamous type 
of epithelium. 

Phlegmonous pharyngitis is not infrequently associated with phleg- 
monous stomatitis, although it may occur independently. Strepto- 
cocci are the usual cause of phlegmonous pharyngitis, and the lesions 
are practically identical with those of phlegmonous stomatitis. 

Necrotic pharyngitis is not rare in swine. It is the result of the 
Bacillus necrophorus, and practically the same lesions are observed 
as in necrobacillosis. 

The symptoms of pharyngitis are as follows: Cough, which in 
the beginning is dry, but later becomes moist and is always painful. 
Deglutition is painful and the affected animals prefer soft foods 
or slops. In severe cases there is anorexia. There will be some 
drooling and the escaping saliva will be stringy. There is retching 
and frequently vomiting. There is usually one to three degrees F. 
rise in temperature in the phlegmonous and necrotic types. 

The first step in the relief of pharyngitis is to remove the cause. 
The affected animal or animals should be placed in clean comfort- 
able quarters. If the affected animals will eat or drink, then it may 
be possible to medicate them in the feed or water, giving mild 
astring-ents. In valuable individuals it is advisable to give medica- 
ments by inhalation in tlic form of vapors, using such agents as oil 
of eucalyptus. 

PARALYSIS 

Paralysis of the pharynx is a condition resulting from disturb- 
ances of the controlling pharyiigeal nerves or of the muscles of the 
pharynx. This condition is usually associated with rabies, although 
it has been observed independent of that disease and probably 



86 SWINE PRACTICE 

resulted from the iiitiiienees of some substanee upon the deglutition 
centers of the medulla. 

TUMORS 

Pharyngeal tumors in swine are not very connnon. Occasionally 
polypoid fibromas are observed, but they are rare. Of the malignant 
tumors the epitheliomas are most often met with ; however, these 
are rare. Adenomas and carcinomas also have been observed, but 
infrequently. 

Esophagus 

MALFORMATIONS 

Malformations of the esophagus are rather rare. The canal may 
end abruptly at the lower end of the upper third, beginning lower 
down, and continue to the stomacli. or the esophagus may form a 
union with the trachea. In rare instances fistulous openings have 
been observed in the cervical region. 

STENOSIS 

Stenosis, or narrowing of the esophagus, is not infrequent. This 
condition occurs most frequently at the pharyngo-esophageal junc- 
tion or at the cardiac termination, the cause being either extrinsic 
or intrinsic. 

Etiology. — Among extrinsic causes may be pressure from enlarged 
thyroids, tumors, aneurysms, or abscesses. Foreign bodies, too, often 
produce partial obstruction of the esophagus, thus causing a tem- 
porary stenosis. The intrinsic causes are more frequently due to 
sears or sear tissues that have formed as a result of injuries or of 
diseased processes of the esophageal tissues. Hyperplasia of the 
esophageal muscle, also, may produce stenosis. 

Lesions.- — The usual anatomical changes observed in esophageal 
stenosis consist of cicatrized fibrous tissue. The extent of the trouble 
varies, but as a rule it involves only a small portion of the esophagus. 
The stenosis may form a regular or irregular diminished lumen. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms evidenced in esophageal stenosis con- 
sist of difficult deglutition and sometimes dilatation (which see), 
succeeded by the formation of jal)ot, wliich may he oliserved in ani- 
mals thin in flesh. 

Treatment. — Surgical interference, which may or may not be sue- 



DIGESTIVE SYSTE^I 87 

cessful, depending upon the extent of the lesions and the age of the 
animal involved, is the only treatment for esophageal stenosis. 

DILATATION 

Esophageal dilatation is less frequently met with than stenosis, 
particularly in swine. 

Etiology. — Obstrueticn and stenosis of the esophagus are primary 
causes of esophageal dilatation, but it may be the result of traction 
from without. 

Lesions. — Dilatation usually aft'ects the entire circumference of 
the esophagus, although in some instances the dilatation may be lateral 
and form a true diverticulum. In the dilated portion, the esophageal 
walls are usually attenuated, and, in rare instances, they may be- 
come so weak that they are easily ruptured. 

Synipfotns. — The usual symptoms evidenced in an animal afflicted 
with esophageal dilatation consist (»f a gradually developing tume- 
faction or enlargement in the cervical region while the animal is 
eating, due to the accumulation of food in the dilated portion of the 
esophagus. The enlargement gradually subsides after eating, until 
no enlargement is observed. 

Trcdtweut. — The treatment of esophageal dilatation is of little 
avail, and is primarily contined to surgical interference. 

PERFORATION 

Esophageal jierforation is not very connnon in swine. 

Etiology. — It may be the result of ercsioii due to disease processes, 
such as actinomycosis, tuberculosis, or necrobacillosis, resulting in 
a complete destruction of portions of the esophageal walls and thus 
IDermitting the contents of the esophagus to infiltrate into the sur- 
rounding structures. 

Perforation may also result from injury due to some foreign body 
that has been ingested and lodged in tlie esophagus. Weston re- 
ported the case, in The American Veterinary Eeview (Vol. -lO, p. 
658), of a hog that had swallowed a piece of sharp tin, wiiich had 
perforated the thoracic i)ortion of the esophagus. A sinus was 
formed in the adjacent lung, in which a small mass of food had 
accumulated. 

Lesions. — The lesions resulting from jxTforation of the esophagus 
ai'e (piite vai'iablc and consist not only of the destruction of the 



bo SWINE PRACTICE 

esophageal walls, but also of tissue changes induced by the escape 
of food from the esophagus into the surrounding tissues. In some 
instances the primary lesions consist of an inflammatory edema, 
while in other instances the primary lesions are tuberculous, 
actinomycotic, or necrobacillary. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms resulting from esophageal perforation 
vary according to the secondary lesions evolved and the location of 
the perforation. Sharp objects may perforate and pass through the 
esophagus without permitting food stuff to pass through the per- 
foration in the peri-esophag'eal tissue. In other instances food stuff 
may pass through the perforation into the surrounding* tissue. Per- 
forations in the thorax are much more serious than those occurring 
in the cervical region. The escape of food material from the esopha- 
gus into the surrounding: tissue practically always produces a 
phlegmonous inflammation. If gas-forming bacteria are present then 
an emphysematous condition will be produced. Deglution will be 
difficult and in the majority of cases there will be aphagia. Per- 
foration in the thoracic portion of the esophagus may be associated 
with vertigo, nausea, trembling and colicky pains. 

Treatment. — The treatment of esophageal })erforation depends up- 
on removing the cause and healing the injuries, combined with 
proper diet. 

ESOPHAGITIS 

Esophagitis in hogs is not very connnoii. It may be the result 
of injury from foreign bodies, exposure, infection or the ingestion 
of hot food or drink. 

Catarrhal esophagitis is perhaps the most frequent type of in- 
flammation and may be local or general. The usual lesions evi- 
denced in the acute type consist of congestion, infiltration, and 
tumefaction of the mucous membrane, associated with desquamation 
of the epithelium. Ulceration may occur. Tlie chronic type is 
characterized by an excessive development of fibrous tissue in the 
submucosa, causing the mucous membrane to be thrown into folds. 
Chronic esophagitis is occasionally observed in hogs that are fed 
exclusively on distillery slops. 

Croupous esophagitis is usually the result of an invasion of strep- 
tococci, although this condition may be associated with hog cholera 
or pneumonia. The disease is characterized by the accumulation 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 89 

upon the mucous membrane of a yellowish or brownish coagulated 
exudate. 

Phlegmonous esophagitis is usually observed as a sequel of per- 
foration, or the escape of pus into the submucosa from abscesses. 
This condition is sometimes associated with phlegmonous pharyngitis. 
The accumulated pus or other inflammatory exudate is frequently 
so extensive that the lumen of the esophagus is entirely closed. 

The symptoms of inflammation of the esophagus are obscure. Dif- 
ficult deglutition, nausea, vomition are the symptoms usually evi- 
denced in swine affected with esophagitis. 

Treatment of inflammation of the esophagus is not entirely satis- 
factory, because the affected animals will usually not attempt to 
swallow. If the condition is diagnosed in the early stages while 
the animal will drink slops, mucilaginous slops will be of value. 

TUMORS 

Tumors of the esophagus are relatively rare. Polypoid fibromas 
have been observed, and more rarely myxomas and myomas. 
Malignant tumors of the esophagus are quite rare, and when thej^ 
do occur they are secondary. 

Aoerration of Appetite 

(Pig-Eating Sows). 

Pig-eating by sows is an aberration of the appetite or perversion 
of taste and is not attributed to any definite pathologic entity or 
condition. This condition may be a vice, an instinctive act, or a 
mania. 

In some instances the cause of this depravity of appetite is im- 
proper feed during the latter portion of the period of gestation. 
It is always advisable to gradually change the feed of sows about 
two or three weeks before farrowing time, diminishing the fat-form- 
ing elements. Some feeders claim that adding small quantities of 
tankage to the feed for a period of ten days before farrowing will 
prevent this vice. The consensus of opinion is that a sow that has 
once formed the habit of eating her recently farrowed pigs cannot be 
broken of the habit, regardless of any variations of feeds and methods 
of feeding. 



90 SWINE PRACTICE 

Stomach 

MALFORMATIONS 

JMalformatioiis of the stomach are comparatively rare in hogs. 
The stomach may l)e abnormally small and sometimes there is a con- 
striction in the midcUe line producing the so-called hour-glass 
stomach. 

P'OREIGN BODIES 

Foreign bodies in the stomach are comparatively frecpient be- 
cause hogs have a marked tendency to swallow objects of various 
kinds. The following was found in one hog's stomach: 

40 nails. 1 No. 10 shotgun shell. 

15 staples. 2 buggy-top tacks. 

4 screws. 5 pieces of iron. 

4 nnts. 1 metal picture frame. 

9 pebbles. G pieces of zinc. 

1 snap. 8 pieces of wire. 

2 bolts. 1 piece of glass. 
1 brass pin. 1 piece of brass. 
1 piece porcelain. 

Hair balls (trichobezoars) are occasionally observed in swine. 

The damage due to foreign bodies in the stomach of swine depends 
npon their nature. Some sharp objects inflict wounds of various 
dimensions, and in some instances perforation occurs, succeeded 
by peritonitis. 

Lesions. — The lesions vary with the nature of the foreign objects; 
in some cases only a catarrhal condition results, while in other 
instances there may be laceration or even perforation of the stomach 
walls. 

Symptoms. — Evidences of gastric foreign bodies are by no means 
sufficiently distinct to differentiate this condition from various other 
gastric disorders. 

Treatment. — Little is available in the way of treatment of swine 
that have ingested foreign bodies. Small objects may be expelled 
by vomition excited by emetics such as ipecac or apomorphine or they 
may lie removed by gastric lavage. Objects embedded in the gastric 
walls can be removed only by surgical interference, but gastric 
surgery in swine is not well developed at this time. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 91 

Treatment to relievi^ voniition in swine is of ((uestionable value 
because vomitin<i' is nature's method of eliminating irritating sub- 
stances from the ston)aeh. The cause of the vomition should be de- 
termined and removed or overcome and the trouble will cease. If 
vomition is found to be caused l)y irritating substances in the stom- 
ach it may be advantageous to further stimulate this process of 
elimination by the administration of ipecac, syrup of squills or 
veratrine, the latter being injected intramuscularly in one-half grain 
doses. Cases of vomition resulting from constipation may be re- 
lieved by the use of purgatives. Salines are probably the most 
applicable purgative in relieving constipation in swine. Magnesium 
and sodium sulphate in from 2 to 4 ounce doses given in solution 
in capsules usually produce ])urgation in a few hours. 

If vomiting is associated with gastritis, it is usually advisable to 
overcome the vomition by rectal injections of chloral or the admin- 
istration of opium in capsules or by the injection of morphine. It 
may be necessary to use cold compresses in the pharyngeal region 
in addition to the administration of narcotics. 

The presence of foreign bodies in the stomach is sometimes due 
to aberration of appetite and this variation of appetite frequently 
continues and constitutes an outstanding symptom. There is us- 
ually imperfect gastric digestion manifested by restlessness and in 
extreme eases by retching and vomition. 

VO.MITION (EMESIS) 

Vomition is rather common in swine and is the result of stimu- 
lation of the vomition center, which is located in the medulla. This 
stimulation may be direct from irritation in the nerve center, but 
more freciuently it is indirect from irritation of some portion of 
the gastro-intestinal tract. Vomition is therefore a symptom of a 
variety of disease conditions. It may be caused by engorgement 
of the stomach, nature having provided this method of relieving 
an overloaded stomach. Intestinal obstruction is another frequent 
cause of vomition in swine, as is also irritation of the mucosa of the 
esophagus, intestine, and more especially the stomach. Thus hog 
cholera is frequently evidenced by vomition. Gastric parasites not 
infrequently cause sufficient irritation to produce violent vomition, 
particularly in small pigs, while chemical irritants acting upon the 
digestive mucosa may produce vomition. 

Swine as a rule vomit easilv. Tlie afifected animals become un- 



92 SWINE PRACTICE 

easy and restless. They extend the head and depress the nose, the 
esophageal muscles relax, the abdominal muscles contract, and the 
stomach content is thus forced out. The vomited material usually 
consists of particles of food admixed with mucus, although it maj^ 
be composed entirely of a thin, shiny mucus. The expelled material 
may contain intestinal as well as gastric contents. • 

ANEMIA 

Anemia of tlie mucous membrance of the stomach occurs in swine 
after surgical operations in which large quantities of blood have 
been lost. It may also be due to obstruction of the arteries sup- 
plying the gastric walls. 

A long-continued anemia of the stomach results in atrophy of 
its w^alls. An anemic stomach is pale, flabby, and bloodless. 

Gastric anemia results in improper digestion, which ultimately 
leads to emaciation and possibly to other disturbances of the animal 
body. 

HEMORRHAGE ( HEMATEMESIS) 

Etiulogij. — Hemorrhage of the stomach, or hematemesis is the re- 
sult of erosion of blood-vessels due to diseased processes, traumatisms, 
and caustics. Hog cliolera is tlie most freciuent cause of gastric 
hemorrhages in hogs. 

Petechial hemorrhage into the walls of the stomach is associated 
with various infective diseases. 

Lesions. — Erosion or laceration of the blood-vessels plus an ac- 
cumulation of blood in the stomach or discharged from the stomach, 
are associated with gastric hemorrhage. The hydrochloric acid 
of the gastric juice, acting upon the blood, forms a clot, and also 
changes the color of the blood. As a rule the extravasation is con- 
verted into masses, which are of about the same size and color as 
roasted coffee beans. Tf the escaped blood from the stomach passes 
on through the intestine it will remain firmly clotted in coffee-bean 
masses. These masses characterize gastric hemorrhage and serve 
to distinguish gastric from intestinal hemorrhage. 

Symptoms. — Gastric hemorrhage is evidenced by a pale mucous 
membrane and the escape of non-frothy, black, and more or less 
coagulated masses of blood from the mouth. 

If the blood escapes slowly it may not be eliminated by vomition. 
and the evidence of the hemorrhage will be found in tlie feces. The 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 93 

acid gastric juice causes a coagulation of the blood and converts it 
into a brown color which forms in masses about the size of grains 
of coffee, and may be observed in the feces. The coffee-grain coagula 
in the feces are characteristic of gastric hemorrhage. 

Treatment. — The treatment for gastric hemorrhage depends upon 
the cause of the condition. In cases in which vomition is a prominent 
sj-mptom, antemetics should be administered. Lime water, one-half 
dram doses of milk of magnesia, insoluble bismuth salts in one-half- 
dram doses or chloral hydrate in dram, doses, administered in cap- 
sules are useful in overcoming nausea and vomition. If the hemate- 
m,esis is the result of perforation or laceration of the gastric walls, the 
administration of bismuth subnitrate in half-dram doses serves the 
double purpose of an antemetic and hemostatic. 

PEPTIC ULCERS 

Peptic ulcers are rarely observed in swine, but when they occur 
are usually near the pyloric end of the stomach. 

Etio^.ogy. — The cause of peptic ulcer is thought by some to be 
due to thrombotic formation ; it may be due to the action of gastric 
juice upon anemic areas of the stomach. 

Lesions. — Peptic ulcers are characteristic in their appearance. 
They may involve the mucous membrance only or they may extend 
through the submucosa and involve the muscular coat of the stomach, 
and even perforate the serous membrane. In size they vary from 
that of the cross-section of a lead pencil to the area of a silver dollar. 
They appear as though made by means of a punch, and if they in- 
volve more than the mucous membrance they usually have a terraced 
margin; their walls being clean-cut and non-inflammatory. 

Symptoms. — The evidences of peptic ulcer vary, but usually there 
is indigestion and occasionally hemorrhages. Sometimes it results 
in perforation of the stomach, followed by peritonitis and death. 

Treatment. — The treatment of peptic ulcers, if the diagnosis should 
be made, is not satisfactory. The administration of one-half-dram 
doses of 1 per cent solution of silver nitrate has been advised but has 
been attended with little success when administered to cases known 
to be affected with ulcers of the stomach. In many instances gas- 
tric hemorrhage is the result of peptic ulcers, and such cases are 
frequently relieved, at least temporarily, by the administration of 
bismuth subnitrate once daily. The feed should be carefully regu- 
lated in these cases. Special precautions should be taken to pre- 



04: SWINE PRACTICE 

vent over-feecling: and most such patients will respond to treat- 
ment much more readily on one-half or two-thirds of the regular 
ration. 

HYPEREMIA 

Passive hi/pereiiiia of the stomach is the result of obstructive cir- 
culation and usually is evidenced by more or less edema of the gas- 
tric walls ; in extreme cases there may be thrombotic formation and 
focal or even extensive necrosis. 

Active hyperemia of the stomach is much more common than the 
passive form, and may be either i)hysiologic or pathologic. 

Pathologic gastric arterial hyperemia is caused by irritation, either 
from chemicals, undue exposure, or infection, and represents the 
primary stage of intiammation. 

Hyperemia of the stomach is rarely diagnosed as such. It is 
difficult to draw a line between physiologic and pathologic hyperemia, 
and unfortunately it is not possible to distinguish between patho- 
logic active hyperemia and intiammation of the stomach. If such 
a distinction could be made the inflammatory process could in the 
majority of ca.ses be prevented. 

GASTRITIS 

Gastritis is relatively common in hogs. It results from trau- 
matic injuries, chemical irritants (poisons), and infection. 

Cdtarrha^ (Tdsfritis 

Catarrhal gastritis is of fairly common occurrence and usually 
results from mild irritation. It is evidenced by a In'peremia of the 
mucosa, which appears red, slightly tumefied, and covered with vary- 
ing quantities of mucus. 

Etiology. — The most common causes of catarrhal gastritis are im- 
proper feed and irregular feeding. ^loldy. musty, sprouted, 
burned and immature grains are frequently fed to swine, and are 
not only responsible for many cases of indigestion but also other 
diseased conditions. The hog is usually considered as the farm 
scavenger and any food stuff that is deteriorated is ordinarily con- 
sidered good enough for swine. Some breeders and feeders cook 
the food stuff' for swine and occasionally such fe^ds are given suf- 
ficientlv hot to cause irritation not onlv of the buccal mucosa l)ut 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



95 



also of the gastric mucosa. Jri'cgularity of feeding is another im- 
portant factor in the production of gastric catarrh and the associ- 
ated indigestion. The stomach like any other organ adapts iself 
to certain habits, such as a fixed time for feeding. If swine are 
fed at a certain hour each morning and evening, the digestion will 
be much more perfect than if fed at irregular periods and, there- 
fore, it is economy to have a fixed feeding time. If animals are 
not fed until after the regular feeding time they are likely to 
overload, due to the fact that they were hungry, and consume the 
food more rapidly than when fed regularly. Overloading 'is a 
faetor in the production of gastric catarrh. Drinking of large 










(ir^ -^'^^^ 



Fig. 22. ACUTE GASTRITIS, a, Congested vessel in stroma; b. Gastric crypt 
and glands; o. mucous exudate; d. Migratory leucocyte. 

quantities of cold water may produce catarrh of the stomach. Gas- 
tritis is frecpiently associated with infectious diseases such as hog 
cholera and necrotic enteritis. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of catarrhal gastritis vary according 
to the intensity of the disease, vomition after eating being one of 
the most common. There is usually increased thirst. In the be- 
ginning of the disease there is often constipation, follow'ed by diar- 
rhea with a discharge of a thin, fetid, fecal material. There is a 
slight rise of temperature and usually an unequal distribution of 
surface temperature, one part being w-arm while another is cold. 
The tail drops, and the animals have a tendency to pile up or get 
under their bedding. The course of the disease is usually rapid 
and recoverv almost cei-tain. 



96 SWINE PRACTICE 

Treatment. — The treatment eonsiists in determining the eause and 
then removing it. It is advisable to empty the stomach by use of an 
emetic, such as apomorphin. Mild laxatives or laxative foods should 
be given. The affected animals should then be placed on a diet 
consisting of a small quantity of easily digested food. Further 
treatment is rarely necessary. 

Croupous Gastritis 

Croupous gastritis is usually the result of caustics ingested with 
food stuff, such as lye, which is occasionally fed in large quantities 
for the purpose of warding off diseases of various kinds. 

Lesions. — In croupous gastritis an intense tumefaction of the mu- 
cosa is present, the affected portion containing accumulation of 
exudate which is dirty white or brown in color, and when detached 
usually leaves a bleeding surface. 

Symptoms. — The manifestations of croupous gastritis are similar 
Co those of catarrhal gastritis, but are more intense. The animals 
evince , gastric pain by uneasiness, restlessness, and > frequent 
vomition. There is a rise of temperature of from one to two de- 
grees Fahrenheit. The affected swine have little desire to eat, but 
they show a tendency to drink frequently, after which they evidence 
more intense pain until they vomit. The tail hangs straight, and 
the animals have little tendency to move. 

This disease usually runs a rapid course, as a rule terminating 
within five to eight days. 

The prognosis should be guarded. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in giving demulcent drinks, 
such as flax-seed gruel after having removed the cause. The con- 
tent of the bowels should be kept soft by laxatives. The affected 
animals should be separated from the healthy and given good quar- 
ters. 

Phlegmonous Gastritis 

Phlegmonous gastritis occasionally occurs in hogs and is usually 
the result of infection with streptococcic microorganisms. 

Lesions. — The anatomical changes occurring in phlegmonous gas- 
tritis consist of an intense tumefaction of the mucosa due to accumu- 
lation of pus or other inflammatory products in the submucosa. 
Patches of the mucosa may become necrotic and desquamate. In 
other instances large sinuous tracts are formed beneath the mucosa 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 97 

and in these pus aceumnlates in large quantities. The muscular 
layers of the stomach frequently become infiltrated with pus; the 
inflammatory process may extend to and involve the serous coat. 

Symptoms. — The evidences of phlegmonous gastritis are not distinct 
and separable from those of croupous gastritis. There is usually in- 
tense pain, indicated by the constant change in position of the ani- 
mals. Vomition is usually frequent, the vomited material being 
small in quantity and largely mucous or mucopurulent in character, 
and it is not infreciuently mixed with blood. There is inappetence, 
thirst, and a drawn-up appearance of the abdomen, with arching 
of the back. The temperature ranges from 104 to 107 degrees 
Fahrenheit. Constipation is usually quite marked in the beginning, 
but may be succeeded by diarrhea. 

The course of this disease varies from three to seven clays. The 
prognosis should be guarded, as the disease is usually fatal. 

Treatmeyii. — The pain may be relieved by the administration of 
a demulcent. Flax-seed tea or gruel will usually be consumed if 
it is the onlj' available fluid for drinking. If the pain is not relieved 
by the demulcent drink, one-half-dram doses of chloral hydrate 
should be administered in a capsule. In cases evidencing constipa- 
tion enemas will be found of value. In valuable animals gastric 
lavage may be resorted to. 

Chronic Gastritis 

Chronic gastritis is of rather frequent occurrence in hogs. 

Etiology. — Chronic gastritis is caused by the long continued ac- 
tion of mild irritants. Thus, the constant feeding with improper 
feed is a very common cause of chronic gastritis. Some feeders 
claim that a constant corn ration may produce sufficient disturb- 
ance to result in chronic gastritis. Garbage, especially if no pre- 
cautions are taken to prevent the feeding of putrid or fermented 
substances, will cause chronic gastritis. Parasitism may cause 
chronic gastritis. The most common offending parasite is the ar- 
duenna strongylina. 

Lesions. — The anatomical changes in the stomach consist of a 
fibrous proliferation which may destroy the gland tissues or obstruct 
their ducts, resulting in the formation of small cysts. The mucosa 
is usually attenuated, due to atrophy of the mucous membrane. 
As a rule there is some ulceration and not infrequently the capacity 



98 SWINE PRACTICE 

of the .stomach is diminislied, due to the eontraetion of the newly 
formed fibrous tissues. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of chronic gastritis of swine are not 
distinct. There is variation of appetite. Vomition immediately 
after eating may or may not be present. Affected animals are un- 
thrifty as a result of nutritive disturbances. 

It is not uncommon to see affected animals actually diminish in 
weight. This is particularly true in cases in which there is diarrhea. 
Chronic gastritis in swine is similar to dyspepsia in the human. 

This is essentially a chronic disease, the courses varying from a 
few weeks to months. Prognosis is favorable as to the life of the 
animal, but unfavorable as to the relief of the condition. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in strictly limiting the diet to 
easily digested foods, and the maintenance of a laxative condition 
of the bowels. 

If the appetite is irregular and the animals appear to have little 
desire for food the administration of a bitter tonic will be found 
of value, such as gentian and mix vomica, which may be admin- 
istered in their feed or by capsules. 

DILATATION 

Dilatation of the stomach may be acute or chronic. 
Aciit( (rdsfrlc Dddtdiion 

Acute dilatation is a condition resulting from a rapid distention 
of the stomach, a condition not very common in swine. 

Etiology. — Acute dilatation is usually due to overloading the stom- 
ach. It is most frequently caused by the ingestion of large quanti- 
ties of indigestible substances, or of foods that are easily and ex- 
tensively fermentable. 

Lesions. — The lesions observed in acute dilatation consist of en- 
largement, the walls being very much attenuated. Rupture of the 
stomach may occur in the greater curvature. 

Symptoms. — The evidences of acute dilatation are the same as those 
of overloading of the stomach. Restlessness, succeeded by vomit- 
ing, is the usual sign observed in the early stages of a limited dilata- 
tion. In some instances the walls of the stomach become so thin due 
to extreme distention, that vomition is not possible, and such cases 
are evidenced by gagging, salivation, and bloating, if the distention 



digestivp: system 99 

is due to foods tliat readily ferment, Extreme distention prodnees 
distress and expressions of pain. 

Diagnosis. — Diagnosis of gastrie dilatation is dependent upon 
history and the s;. mptoms indicated above. Prognosis should be 
guarded, as the possibility of rupture must always be considered. 

Treaimcnt. — When the dilatation is not too great, the treatment 
should be largely confined to removal of the gastric content by 
(metics, and to lavage when the dilatation is extensive and likely 
to result in rupture. 

Clnonic (htsirir Di!<it(itio)i 

Clironic gastric dilatation is not common in swine but has been 
obsei'Vv-d. Accumulatiori of indigestible substances is the usual 
cause of the trouble. Occasional cases have been observed where 
there was sufficient accumulation of hair in the stomach to perma- 
nently dilate it beyond the normal capacity. 

Symptoms. — The usual evidences of chronic gastric dilatation con- 
sist of irregular appetite, associated with unthriftiness. The stomach 
is distended, and may contain various foreign bodies or indigestible 
substances. The gastric mucosa is usually affected with chronic 
catarrh. 

Treatment. — This condition is not very successfully treated be- 
cause of the tendency to permanent dilatation of the stomach. Diet- 
ing, especially with easily digestible, concentrated foods, is especially 
advised. 

TUMORS 

Tumors of the stomach of swine are not very prevalent, or at 
least such cases are rarely reported. 

Fihromas have been observed in only a few instances. They 
usually involve the serous coat and rarely become of sufficient magni- 
tude to cause damage other than slight mechanical interference. 
These tumors are invarial)ly iu('a|)sulate(l, and appeal" as a dense, 
fibrous mass. 

JApomas occur in Ihc serous coat of the stomach of svviiu^ Ihougli 
they ai'e not common. A few such tumors have l)een observed, and 
in one instance the tumor had become so large that it seriously inter- 
fered with the function of the organ by displacing the stomach 
and |)r()(liu'iug such i)i'essure that it ])ractically occluded +lie 



100 SWINE PRACTICE 

duodenum and resulted in death. Lipomas appear as more or less 
nodular masses, and are invariabl}^ incapsulated. 

Of the malignant tumors, carcinoma and adenoma have been ob- 
served, although they too are rather infrequent and do not appear 
to be so injurious to the health of swine as the same kinds of tumors 
are to horses or even to cattle. Carcinomas may develop in the sub- 
mucosa and project into the lumen of the intestine as a caulitiower- 
like mass, or they may develop in the mucosa, producing erosions not 
only of the mucous membrane, but of the other structures of the 
stomach wall, ultimately causing perforation and fatal peritonitis. 
These tumors are not incapsulated. 

The symptoms evolved as a result of tumors are quite variable 
and not sufficientlj' characteristic to permit a positive antemortem 
diagnosis. 

The treatment of gastric tumors is entirely surgical. 

PARASITES 

Arduenna strongylina is a very connnon parasite in the stomach of 
swine. In the central United States it is probable that at least 
ninety per cent of swine are infested. They are small-thread like, 
white worms, varying in length from three-fourths of an inch to one 
and one-half inches, usually more or less coiled, although they may 
be found practically straight. They may be found in masses in the 
submucosa, free upon the mucous membrane, extending into the 
gastric glands, or even perforating the mucous membrane. They 
injure their host by direct abstraction of nutriment, by obstruction 
of gastric glands, by destruction of tissue, and by irritation. The 
usual condition resulting from infestation with these parasites is 
chronic gastric catarrh. 

Symptoms. — Symptomatically the infestion with large numbers of 
the Arduenna strongylina is evidenced by variation of appetite, and 
usually by constipation, unthriftiness, and rough coat. It is doubt- 
ful if any symptoms would be sufficiently prominent upon which to 
base a diagnosis in cases in which the infestation is limited to a few 
worms. 

Treatment. — Treatment of gastric parasitism is not difficult pro- 
viding the parasites are free upon the surface, but successful treat- 
ment is difficult in cases where the parasites have passed through 
the mucous membrane into the submucosa. The usual anthelmintic 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 101 

treatment is most easily applied in the food or slop. Ferrous sul- 
phate, copper sulphate, or oil of turpentine may be mixed with 
slops. Santonin given with food is of value, but creosote in the slop 
is probably most efficient. 

The Simondsia paradoxa infests the stomach of swine, but is 
probably not found in the United States, although quite preva- 
lent in some sections of Europe. The lesions, symptoms, and treat- 
ment are similar to those given for Arduenna strongylina. 

Ascaris sumn is found occasionally in the stomach, but its na- 
tural habitat is the intestine, and it will be discussed latter in that 
relation. 

Intestines 

MALFORMATIONS 

Total absence of the intestine is rare and occurs practically only 
in acardiac monsters. 

Atresia ani, that is, the failure of development of the anus, is 
relatively common. This condition results from the failure of in- 
vagination of the skin surface which normally extends to and fuses 
with the rectum. Pigs so affected, unless the defect is relieved by 
operation, die the first or second day after being farrowed. The 
defect is as a rule easily corrected by operation in which crucial in- 
cisions are made through the skin and terminal end of the rectum, 
the skin and rectal triangular tiaps being interdigitated and main- 
tained by sutures. 

Cloacal formation in which there is a common opening for the 
intestine, uterus, and vagina or ureters sometimes occurs, but this 
is not a serious defect, except in breeding animals. 

Diverticula are not rare. They are usually the persistent rem- 
nants of the vitellin or omphalomesenteric duct. They do not as a 
rule interfere with the health of the animal. 

Transposition, particularly of the large colon, may occur, but is 
not of any significance except as a pathologic condition. 

Congenital hernia may occur. The outcome depends upon the ex- 
tent and nature of the defect. 

HEMORRHAGE (eNTERORRHAGIA) 

Enterorrhag'ia occurs rather commonly in swine. 

Etiology. — Mechanical injury of the structure of the intestine by 



102 



SWINE PRACTICE 



ingested foreign bodies is a comuion cause ot* hemorrhage. In ex- 
treme cases of constipation the accumulated fecal matter may be- 
come so desiccated that it readily produces abrasions of the intes- 
tinal mucosa, resulting in hemorrhage. Parasites, particularly the 
Gigantorhynchus hirudinaceus, may also produce hemorrhage. In- 




Fig. 21!. Arteries and lymph glands in the intestines of the hog. A. Great 
mesenteric artery: A\ arteries of the intestinal mesentery and its sub- 
divisions; J, small intestine: C. cecum: Co, colon; G, mesenteric lymph 
glands forming a chain along the vascular arches of the mesentery; H, 
group of lymph-nodes along the course of the cecal artery; K, several small 
lymph-nodes on the colic artery. (From Aureggio's "AUnmi Guide.") 

testinal liemorrhage is a connnon symptom of hog cholera, anthrax, 
septicemia, cryptogamic poisoning, caustic poisoning, and severe 
intiammatory disturbances of the intestine. 

Lesions. — The particular lesion identifying intestinal hemorrhage 
is the exti-avasated blood which may or may not be thoroughly 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 103 

admixed with the intestinal eontent. If the hemorrhage has been 
extensive there will be a general anemia of the entire mucosa. 
Tiesions of the intestinal mucosa will be observed in those eases 
in whieli the hemorrhage has been induced by trauma or chemical 
irritants. There may be no evidence of intestinal mucous mem- 
brane lesions in the infective diseases like hog cliolera, as the hemor- 
rhages in these cases are usually the result of blood-vessel lesions 
rather than mucosa lesions. 

Symptoms. — The Hrst evidence of intestiiud hemorrhage is the 
passing of the blood from the anus. If the discharged blood is 
thoroughly admixed with the feces and of a brownish cast it indi- 
cates that the hemorrhage has been well forward in the small intes- 
tine. If the discharged Ijlood occurs in masses, not mixed with the 
fecal matter, and has the normal blood color, it indicates that the 
hemorrhage has been in the anterior portion of the large intestine; 
and if the fecal matter is streaked with blocd on the outer surface 
only, the hemorrhage occurred in the rectum. The visible mucous 
membranes will be pale, pulse rapid and almost imperceptible, and 
there will be weakness associated with uncertain gait. 

D'uKjttosis. — The diagnosis of enterorrhagia is rsnally not difficult, 
although it may not be an easy matter to determine the exact cause 
of the condition. In gastric hemorrhage the extravasated blood that 
passes through the bowel is granular and of a b'ack cnlor; the extra- 
vasate from intestinal hemorrhage is massive, o -curs ui)on the sur- 
face of the feces, and is normal in color. 

Treatment. — The treatnuMjt of intestinal hemorrhage is i)r()l)lematic, 
and the relief from this condition is dependent u])on re.noving the 
cause, which is not aVays possible. Tlie effected animals should be 
kept qriet. Ergot may be used to advantage. Astringents combined 
with laudanum nuiy j)i'oduc(' the desired results. 

OBSTRl'CTION 

Intestinal obstruction is a condition resulting frcm the occlusion of 
the intestine by foreign bodies, inspissated fecal material, parasites, 
abscesses, tumors, cicatrices, rotation of the intestine upon itself or 
volvuhis, and invagination or intussusception. Intussusception is not 
as common in the hog as in some other animals bcL'ause ot" tlie ar- 
i-angement of the mesenteiy, although it niay, and sometimes does, 
occur. 



104 SWINE PRACTICE 

Lesions. — The anatomical changes observed in intestinal obstruc- 
tion vary according to the cause and duration of the condition. Thus 
foreign bodies, such as hair balls or nails, may be found; a tangled 
mass of Ascaris suum is sometimes the only lesion ; abscess, tumor 
formation, or changed relation of the intestine may be the principal 
lesion. Aside from the obstructing agent there may be inflammatory 
or necrotic lesions of the mucous membrane or other portions of the 
intestine. 

Symptoms. — The first evidence is inappetence and a tucked abdo- 
men, followed by infrequent defecation with the passage of small 
quantities of mucous-covered feces. Frequent attempts at defeca- 
tion without the voiding of any fecal matter may occur. Vomition 
is a common symptom in the later stages. In some cases there is 
fermentation of the intestinal content with an excessive accumula- 
tion of gas, producing tympany. 

Treatment. — The relief of intestinal obstruction depends upon the 
cause. Obstruction from inspissated fecal matter may be overcome 
by the judicious use of saline laxatives or enemas. Parasitic obstruc- 
tion may be overcome by the use of vermifuges given orally or in 
enemas. Relief from obstruction due to tumors or abscess formation 
may be temporarily obtained by purgatives, but permanent relief is 
obtained only by removing the cause. The treatment for obstruc- 
tion from volvulus oi- intussusception is problematic and the out- 
come by no means certain. Surgical operation may be resorted to 
in overcoming these conditions, as well as in foreign-body obstruc- 
tion. If the accumulations of gas cause alarming symptoms, the 
trocar may be used to produce immediate relief, and further fer- 
mentation may be checked by the administration of antiferments, 
either through the cannula or per os. As soon as the animals have 
a desire to eat they should be given sparingly of easily digested 
liquid foods. 

DILATATION 

Intestinal dilatation is not of common occurrence in swine. 

Etiology. — The usual cause is partial obstruction, resulting in 
excessive accumulations of food which produce atony and later a 
relaxation and dilatation of the intestinal walls. Should the dilata- 
tion be unequal, diverticular dilatation results. 

Lesions. — The usual lesions observed in intestinal dilatation con- 
sist of distended intestine with an accumulation of excessive quan- 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM , 105 

titles of food material in it and usually an associated condition that 
produces the primary obstruction. 

Symptoms. — Symptomatically, the dilatation is not positively dif- 
ferentiated antemortem from obstruction, the symptoms of both con- 
ditions being practically identical. 

Treatment. — In cases of dilatation, remove that which primarily 
causes an obstruction and then administer tonics to facilitate the 
return of intestinal tonicity. 

EMPHYSEMA 

Single air cysts or clusters of air cysts are not of infrequent 
occurrence, involving and protruding the serous coat of the intestine. 
This condition appears to produce no inconvenience and is of no 
particular economic importance. It has been thought to be the 
result of bacteria, probably of the colon group, which have pene- 
trated through the intestinal wall to the serous coat, where they pro- 
duce fermentation and the gas evolved is accumulated beneath the 
serous membrane. These air cysts vary in size from a pinhead to 
a pea, and there may be only a limited number of them or myriads. 
Occasionally they are so prevalent that the intestine will float on 
water. 

This condition is of no practical consequence, as the flesh from 
an animal in which tliis condition occurs is not damaged and is 
wholesome for human consumption. 

ENTERITIS 

Enteritis is inflammation of the intestine and may be catarrhal, 
croupous, diphtheritic, mycotic ; simple or infective, acute or chronic. 
Catarrhal enteritis may be either acute or chronic. 

Acute Catarrhal Enteritis 

Acute catarrhal enteritis is a common ailment of swine. 

Etiology. — The usual cause of this disease is improper food. Tlie 
natural habits of swine are conducive to the introduction of various 
microbes into their food and drink, and swine are frequently fed on 
materials that al'e partially decomposed. Their food not infre- 
quently contains chemical substances that are sufficiently irritating 
to establish a catarrhal gastritis and enteritis. The ingestion of 
foods of extreme temperatures may excite catarrhal enteritis; not 



106 



SWINE PRACTICE 



infrequently parasites occur in sufficient numbers to produce local 
irritation of sutificient extent to result in catarrhal enteritis; finally, 
acute catarrhal enteritis may be associated with a variety of infective 
diseases. 

Lesions. — The lesions may be localized or they may be general, 
involving practically the entire intestinal mucosa. In the begin- 
ning the affected mucous membrane is red, tumefied, and rather 
dry, but later it becomes coated with mucous which is produced in 
excessive quantities as the disease progresses. Tlie submucosa may 
be swollen, due to the accumulation of intiammatory exudate. The 
tumefaction of the mucosa sometimes effectually closes the ducts of 
the intestinal glands, thus forming retention cysts, and the villi are 
turgescent and have a velvety appearance. The lymjihoid tissue 




Fig. 24. The mud wallow is a prolific source of infection. The hogs in 
this wallow were affected with enteriiis. The one in the center had tetanic 
spasms. Note how it went down in the ba'^k. The pig at the right could 
scarcel-v walk because of tetanic spasms. (Photo by Keehn.) 



usually becomes swollen and contains excessive quantities of leuko- 
cytes which may be expressed as a milky substance. There may, in 
the advanced stages, be areas of necrosis of the epithelium of the 
mucous membran<>. In the submucosa, hemorrhages of varying size 
may occur. 

SyuiptoDts. — Acute catarrhal enteritis occurs most freciuently in 
connection with acute catarrhal gastritis, and the symptoms of gas- 
tritis usually overshadow those of enteritis. Tnappetence or varia- 
tion of appetite, rise of temperature, listlessiiess, and arched back 
are common symptoms of acute ga.strointestinal catari'h. The syuip- 
toms of acute intestinal catarrh are fre(ittent defecation of small 
quantities of mucous-coated feces. In the beginning, there is usuallj* 



DKiLOSTIVE SYSTEM 107 

(•on.stipation, but this cuiiditioii is succeeded by diarrhea. Tlie 
affected animals groan and roll fre(iuently. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause. Adminster calomel in 5 to 20- 
grain doses to clear the intestine of all offending material. If con- 
stipation is marked, use saline enemas prior to the administration 
of calomel. Give a limited amount of easily digestible foods and 
have them fed at regularly stated intervals. 

(lironic ViiarrJidi Eiit(r:t's 

Chronic intestinal catarrli is nsually a se(|uel of acute intestinal 
catarrh. 

Etiology. — The usual causes of chronic intestinal catarrh are the 
same as those causing acute intestinal catarrh, but are continued 
over a longer period of time and probably, in the majority of in- 
stances, are not so intense. p]rror of diet is the most frequent cause. 
Chronic heart or liver diseases that produce venous engorgement 
of the intestine are common causes. Parasites, no doubt, are responsi 
ble for an occasional case of chronic intestinal catarrh. 

Lesio)is. — The aft'ected mucous membrane is nsually of a uniform 
or mottled bluish, steel, slate co\)r. The mucosa is tumetied, dense, 
and of a leathery consistency due to the excessive development of 
fibrons tissue in the submucosa. Small retention cysts representing 
occluded glands may be present. The covering epithelium of the 
mucous membi'ane is attenuated and sometimes erosions, or even 
idcerations, are observed. 

Sijniptonis. — Irregular appetite, alternation of constipation and 
diarrhea, rough coat, emaciation, and malnutrition characterize 
chronic intestinal catarrh. The foregoing symptoms tend to per- 
sist, as the disease may continue for weeks. 

l^reatm.ent. — A proper diet combined with good surroundings are 
prerequisites for the successful treatment of cases of chronic intes- 
tinal catarrh. Regulation of the bowels, with maintenance of the 
proper consistency of the fecal matter, is highly important. 

In these eases it is nsnally advisable to administer calomel in 
5-20 grain doses, followed in 24 hours by from one-half to one ounce 
of castor oil, given in capsules. Bitter tonics containing gentian, 
nux vomica oi' desiccated irou sliould be given in the feed, unless 
there is finorexici. when i1 slioiihl be given in cai)sules. Treatment 
must be persistent, as success will be attained only by a long-con- 
tinued course of treatment, combined Mntli the proper diet. 



108 SWINE PRACTICE 

Croupous Eiiterifis 

Croupous enteritis occurs in swine but is uncommon. 

Etiology. — Croupous enteritis may be the result of infection but 
probably is more frequently caused by chemicals. Caustics or acids 
may be protected by food within the stomach to be liberated in the 
intestine where an intense inflammation would be established. 

Lesions. — The lesions of croupous enteritis consist primarily of 
an intense inflammation in which there is a coagulated inflammatory 
exudate adherent to the surface of the involved mucosa. The intes- 
tinal wall will be found thicker and more dense than normal, due 
to the inflammatory exudate in the submucosa and possibly also in 
the muscular tissue. In the later stages the surface exudate may 
become detached en masse and pass out with the feces. If the entire 
mucosa is involved for some distance the eliminated exudate may 
appear as a tube. 

Symptoms. — Uneasiness, colicky pains, drooping ears and tail, 
increased thirst, inappetence and rise of temperature are the usual 
manifestations of croupous enteritis. 

Diagnosis. — The history of the case combined with the symptoms 
previously noted is sufficient evidence to establish a diagnosis of 
inflammation of the intestine. The absence of retching or vomi- 
tion excludes gastritis. The specific diagnosis of croupous enteritis 
is possible only upon autopsy or the recognition of the croupous 
exudate in the feces. 

Course. — The course of croupous enteritis is rapid, the disease 
being acute. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis should be guarded, if the animal sur- 
vives for two or three days the chances for recovery are good. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause if it still exists. Withhold all 
foods for 24 hours and then give only limited quantities of easily 
digested concentrates in the form of slop. Substitute flax-seed tea 
for water from the beginning. Ii:^estinal antiseptics should be 
incorporated in the flax-seed tea, and stimulants such as nux vomica 
may also be given in the slop. 

Infectious Necrotic Enteritis 

This disease is of an infectious nature and is of such importance 
that it is described in detail in the chapter on infectious diseases. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 109 

Toxic Gastritis, Gastro-Enteritis, Enteritis 

A variety of conditions have been grouped under this heading, 
but this number fortunately is becoming less as more exact investi- 
gations are being concluded. It is difficult to clearly distinguish 
between toxic gastric, toxic gastro-intestinal, and toxic intestinal 
conditions, and as a matter of common observation it has been found 
that substances that ordinarily produce toxic gastritis have not 
spent their entire force in the stomach, and thus continue their 
action in the intestines. On the other hand, few if any substances 
are toxic in the intestine that are not also toxic in the stomach. It 
is convenient to discuss these conditions under poisoning. 

POISONING 

Sodium ChJorid {Common Salt) 

Posioning from common salt is rather common. Swine may obtain 
salt in cattle yards, or it may be incorporated in garbage. Meat 
brine is a frequent source of salt poisoning and is very destructive, 
as, unfortunately, swine appear to relish it. Brine poisoning is 
not only due to the contained salt, but also to other ingredients. 
Poisoning by herring brine produces, in addition to toxic gastro- 
enteritis, cerebral disturbances very similar to ptomaine poisoning. It 
has been found that from two to eight ounces of salt produce pois- 
oning in swine, and in some instances much smaller quantities are 
fatal. 

Lesions. — Sodium chlorid is an intense gastro-intestinal irritant, 
particularly when in a concentrated solution. In the beginning the 
mucous membrane of the stomach will be intensely congested. This 
is followed by hemorrhages upon the mucous membrane, and in- 
flammatory disturbances. If absorption is retarded the stomach and 
bowel . content will contain large quantities of blood. The mucous 
membrane of the bladder will be engorged, and similar lesions may 
be observed in the meninges. 

Symptoms. — Intense thirst, inappetence, restlessness, and vomition 
are usually the first symptoms evidenced. Later there will be watery 
diarrhea, frequent urination, depressed heart action, muscular weak- 
ness, and paralysis. The animals may die within five or six hours 
after ingesting the salt, or they may not die until the second or 
third day; if the quantity consumed has been small, they may 
survive. 



110 SWINE PRACTICE 

Treatment. — Eiueties .should be employed if the animals are ob- 
served immediately after consuming- the salt. The most applicable 
emetic is apomor])hin which may be injected intramuscularly in 
one-half o;rain doses, repeating in 30 minutes if the desired results 
are not obtained. Syruj) of squill in half-ounce doses or ipecaca 
may be used and should be given in capsules. In cases of several 
hours' standing, mucilaginous drinks and rectal injections should 
be given. Oleaginous purgatives, such as castor oil or raw linseed 
oil, are of value as climinants. Castor oil is preferal)h' as a saiaHei" 
dosage is required. It should be given in capsules. Strychnin 
should be injected intramuscularly in 1/60 grain doses to overcome 
the cardiac depression. 

C lustic rotdsli, ('(iKstic Sofia (Lijc : W'dshiiuj I'oirdcr.s) 

It is a conrnon practice to feed swine wash water, particularly 
water that has been used for washing dishes and in which liberal 
quantities of washing powder or lye have been used. Some swine 
breeders and feeders add varying (piantities of lye to the feed to 
"ward oif disease." 

Lesions. — Caustic alkalies may produce congestion, infiammation, 
or necrosis, depending upon the concentration of the mixture. The 
lesions will be diffuse if the alkali has been in solution; they will 
tend to localization if the alkali has been in the i)owdered form. 
In the latter case the lesions occur where the alka'i granules have 
I)een deposited upon the mucous membrane. The lesions are usually 
more intense in the stomach than in the intestine. 

S!f))ii)ton;s — Ketchiiig, vomition, restlessness, and mus-ular weak 
ness are the usual symptoms evidenced in the beginning, followed 
later by diarrhea, incoordination, and paralysis. Death may occur 
within a few hours or in two or three days. Some of the affected 
animals may recover. 

Treatment. — In the early stages emetics should be given until vomi- 
tion is produced. Later acidulated water and oleaginous purgatives 
will be of value. 

T'liosyliorus 

In some sections of the country ])hosj)horous compounds are used 
in destroying gophers, squii'rels, and other similar animals, and not 
infrequently swine obtain a sufficient (pumtity of the poison to pro- 
duce grave disturbances and even death. 



DIGESTIVE SY8TEM 111 

Lesions. — The buccal, pharyngeal, gastrie, and intestinal mucosa 
show intiammation. The liver and kidneys are enlarged, due to fatty 
degeneration of their parenchyma, and the heart also is usually af- 
fected by fatty changes. The content of stomach and bowel are 
phosphorescent when examined in the dark, and a distinct phos- 
phorous odor emanates from the stomach and liowel wlien these 
organs are opened. 

Symptoms. — Intense thirst, difficult deglutition, vomition, and 
colicky pains, associated with weakness and incoordination, are 
produced by phosphorous poisoning. 

Treatment. — Emetics and the administration of turpentine in 
mucilaginous substances, when applied energetically, will sometimes 
save the patient. 

I'll ( no'. {Carbolic Acid) 

Phenol and various compounds containing phenol or crude car- 
bolic acid are extensively (mployed on many stock farms as the 
essential ingredient in dips and they are also used for disinfection. 
Quantities of such agents may be obtained by swine in wallow holes, 
in contaminated troughs and in feeds. If such waste products con- 
lain sufficient phenol and they are consumed by swine, poisonin;;' 
may follow. 

Lesions. — The mucous membraiu^s of the digestive tube but espe- 
cially of the mouth and stomacli will be destroyed and the mucosa 
may still be intact and appear as a gray or white membrane. The 
submucosa beneath the areas of destroyed mucosa will be congestetl 
and hemorrhagic. If sufficient has been consumed to destroy life 
there will be nephritis, bloody urine, and congestion of the liver. 

Symptoms. — Salivation, vomition, colicky pains, muscular weak- 
ness, and the urine will be dark in color and have a |)'\'urun' odor. 

Treatment. — The administration of a rapidly acting emetic such 
as one-half-grain doses of ai)omorphin. The mouth should be swabbed 
with alcohol. Purgatives are indicated, particularly the salines, 
such as epsom salts, using large doses. 

liichlorid of Mcrcurfi {Corrosive Si(hlimatc) 

Pichlorid of mercury is frequently used in the disinfection of 
farm buildings and equipment and sufficient quantities may be ob- 
tained by swine to produce poisoning. Commercial calomel may 
contain varying quantities of corrosive sublimate and the use of 



112 SWINE PRACTICE 

such impure calomel in the preparatiou of specialties or when pre- 
scribed as such is likely to be followed by serious results. Several 
instances have been reported of losses of swine due to corrosive 
sublimate poisoning where the animals had been medicated with 
vermifuge capsules containing commercial calomel. 

Lesions. — The lesions produced by bichlorid of mercury consist 
of an intense inflammation of the mucosa and intestine. The dis- 
tance the lesions extend in the intestine will depend upon the quan- 
tity of the bichlorid consumed. The inflamed areas will be red and 
there may be hemorrhagic areas due to the erosive action of the 
drug. If large quantities of the poison are consumed, there may be 
erosion of the entire stomach wall, thus producing perforation. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms evidenced are colicky pains, vomition, 
purgation, trembling and muscular wealmess. If there has been 
perforation, symptoms of peritonitis will develop, but the animal 
usually succumbs before peritonitis is well established. 

Treatment. — Prevent further posioning by removing the cause. 
If the affected animals have recently developed the symptoms, an 
effective emetic should be given at once. Apomorphin in one-fourth- 
grain doses given intramuscularly, or ipecac given in a capsule 
usually produces vomition promptly. When the stomach has been 
emptied by vomition, albuminous drinks should be given for they 
will not only soothe the irritated mucosa but also will cause the 
formation of an insoluble albuminate of mercury, thus rendering 
the corrosive sublimate inert. Sweet milk or the white of egg are 
suitable for this purpose. 

If the animals have been affected for several hours, emetics are 
not indicated, for the bichlorid wall have exerted its action in the 
stomach and the portion of the drug that has passed into the intestine 
cannot be eliminated by an emetic. Such cases should be given 
albuminous drinks at once and a purgative, preferably epsom salts, 
should be administered. Potassium iodid in 10-15 grain doses given 
every three hours will be found of value in overcoming the after- 
effects of the poison. Stimulants should be used if there is mus- 
cular weakness. 

Xanthiiim Canadense (CocMehur) 

Cocklebur poisoning prevails more or less extensively in the Mis- 
souri Valley during the early spring months. Just as the two cotyle- 
dons push through the ground is the only time in the development 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 113 

of the cocklebur that it is poisonous, or possibly swine eat the plant 
only during this stage of development. The writer assisted in an 
investigation of the effect of young cockleburs when eaten by swine 
at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station in 1899. Quantities 
of the young plants were gathered and fed to pigs weighing from 
forty to sixty pounds. The symptoms, although not universally the 
same in all cases, clearly indicated a gastro-enteritis, which was 
verified by autopsy. 

Lesions. — There is evidence of a marked gastro-enteritis in ani- 
mals dead of cocklebur poisoning, usually involving the entire mucosa 
of the stomach and the small intestine and not infrequently extend- 
ing to the mucous membrane of the large intestine. The involved 
mucous membrane may slough, leaving large areas . of denuded 
surface. 

Symptoms. — Increased thirst, colic pains, diarrhea, weakness, 
paralysis, and death succeed one another rather rapidly in fatal 
cases. In some instances the life of the affected animal is prolonged 
for several days, during which time there is rapid emaciation. 

Treatment. — Treatment is not satisfactory. In the early stages 
emetics may be of value, followed by purgatives and mucilaginous 
drinks. 

Atropa Belladonna {Deadlij Nightshade) 

Deadly nightshade poisoning is not of frequent occurrence, al- 
though it has been reported in sections of the country where the 
plant grows. 

Lesions. — The lesions are not characteristic. Animals that die 
within a few hours will show no lesions at all, except retention of 
the urine or a greatly distended bladder ; the blood may be some- 
what darker than normal. Those that are affected for one or more 
days will show a gastro-intestinal inflammation. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms noticed are nausea, followed by 
vomition, dryness of the mouth, more or less excitement and con- 
vulsions, increased pulse and respiration, dilated pupils, and partial 
blindness. The duration of this period is short and is followed by 
paralysis. The animals become weak, and stagger, the temperature 
falls, respiration is slow and weak, gradually becoming shallower, 
the pulse is rapid and weak, and there is a relaxation of the sphincter 
muscles. The aft'ected animals soon pass into a state of coma in 



114 SWINE PRACTICE 

wluL'li deatli takes place prol)al)ly due to asphyxiation and eardiac 
failure. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in administering the antidotes of 
atropin; emetics and purgatives; in stimulating the heart, and in 
resorting to artificial respiration. If there are periods of excite- 
ment, or convulsions, the animal should be given sedatives. A valu- 
able aid in correctly diagnosing deadly nightshade poisoning consists 
in taking a few drops of urine of the dead animal and dropping it 
into the conjunctival sac of a normal or healthy animal. If the 
poisoning is due to atropin. or deadly nightshade, a dilatation of 
the pupil will occur. 

The carcasses of animals that have died of deadly nightshade 
jioisoning putrifv very slowly. 

Garbage 

This is the time of conservation, and although the feeding of 
garbage to swine is not good sanitation, it is a means of utilizing 
products that would otherwise be wasted. 

In the past rather extensive losses from garbage feeding have 
been repoited, but since the advent of anti-hog cholera serum it 
has been found that many of the cases formerly reported as garbage 
poisoning were hog cholera, and it is certain that garbage frequently 
is contaminated with the virus of hog cholera. 

Garbage poisoning does not signify any one definite kind of pois- 
oning. From the vai-iors reports of investigators it is found that 
powdered soap, sa't, brine, phosphorus, and arsenic are the most 
common active causes, although occasionally no doubt ptomaines 
are a factor. Because of the nature of the poisonous substance, 
cooking the garbage is of little value. 

Lesions. — The lesions of garbage poisoning vary and are dependent 
upon the specific poisonous principle. In practically all cases there 
is evidence of gastro-enteritis, which may or may not be associated 
with hepatitis, nephritis, or cystitis. In some instances, for example, 
those cases dying of strychnin poisoning, no lesions will be fouiul. 

HjjutpioitiH. — The symptoms like th? lesion^;, ai'C v;iri;il)'e and depend 
upon the nature of the poison. There is usually vomition and diai'- 
rhea, associated with listlessness and drooped ears and tail, aiul as 
a rule thei-e is mai-ked evidence of colic. The affected animals may 
die suddenly or they may linger for several days; some of them may 
recovei-. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 115 

Treatment. — The further feeding of the polluted garbage should 
be prohibited. Emetics, enemas, and purgatives to effectually re- 
move the offending material are indicated in the beginning. If the 
specific poison is known, the antidote should be given. In the later 
stages, treatment of the various symptoms as they arise is good 
practice. 

Cryptogatns {Molds, Yeast, Bacteria) 

No doubt some forms of garbage poisoning are due to molds, yeast, 
or bacteria that are capable of producing injurious substances in the 
alimentary canal or have by their growth and activity produced 
injurious substances in or upon the foods prior to the time of their 
ingestion. Gastro-enteritis resulting from the action or products of 
the above-mentioned vegetable microorganisms is designated cryp- 
togamic poisoning or mycotic gastro-enteritis. 

This condition is not so common in swine as in some other domestic 
animals, notably the horse. Glover, of the Colorado Agricultural 
Experiment Station, has reported outbreaks of such a disease which 
were probably due to bacterially decomposed potatoes. Somie un- 
authentic cases have been reported of this condition arising from 
the consumption of moldy alfalfa. Cases have been observed, but 
not frequently, of sWine that had been fed upon moldy corn dying 
of mycotic gastro-enteritis and cerebritis. ' ' 

Lesions. — There is considerable variation in the postmortem find- 
ings in swine that have died of mycotic gastro-enteritis. This is 
not extraordinary, for there is a variety of molds that cause this 
condition. One usually finds extensive inflammation of the gastro- 
intestinal mucosa, and in cases that have lingered for some time, 
ulcerations are very common. There is frequently meningeal en- 
gorgement, and in rare cases there may be cerebral softening. 

Symptoms. — Two different types of conditions are included in this 
grouping from the viewpoint of symptomatology. The symptoms in 
one group consist of inappetence, increased thirst, rise of tempera- 
ture and weakness. In the other group there will be normal or 
subnormal temperature, disturbances of locomotion, impairment of 
vision, anorexia, dysphagia and salivation. 

Treatment. — The cause should be identified and removed. Elim- 
ination by purgatives is indicated and in s^yere cases should be 
assisted by enemas. Stimulants should be used ^n cases showing 
pharyngeal paralysis and depression. Intravenous or intramuscular 



116 SWJNE PRACTICE 

medication provide the only safe method of administering drugs in 
cases in which there is pharyngeal paralysis. 

Cotton-seed- Meal 

Fatal results frequently, but not always, attend the feeding for 
long periods of cotton-seed meal to swine. From experiments thus 
far conducted it is apparent that cotton-seed as a feed is more 
applicable to ruminants than to swine. The feeding for short periods 
has in many instances been beneficial. 

Lesions. — On autopsy, excessive quantities of a serous tiuid are 
found in the pleural and peritoneal cavities. The lung is congested, 
inflamed, and frequently edematous. Congestion in all internal 
organs may be observed. 

Symptoms. — The feces are firm, although diarrhea may be present. 
Unthriftiness, irregular appetite or inappetence, weakness, unsteady 
gait, blindness and dyspnea are common symptoms. The animals 
finally assume the decubital position, and may struggle or may 
become comatose. Death occurs in from a few hours to several days, 
sometimes occurring almost instantaneously with premonitory symp- 
toms. 

Treatment. — Green feed and exercise have a tendency to coun- 
teract the injurious effects of cotton-seed meal. Free access to wood 
ashes is a valuable but not an absolute preventive of cotton-seed 
poisoning. Iron compounds have also been used and proved bene- 
ficial, while the wood ashes and iron salts are preventive but not cura- 
tive agents. The treatment of affected animals has not been suc- 
cessful . 

PARASITES 

The intestine of swine is a common abode for parasites. Parasitic 
infestation is most prevalent in young animals, but because of the 
mode of eating and the habits of swine it is rather the exception to 
find even an old hog entirely free from intestinal parasites. Their 
injury to the host depends upon the kind and the number of para- 
sites. Intestinal parasites injure swine as follows: 

1. Abstraction of nutrition. 

2. Obstruction. 

(a) Of the lumen of the intestine. 

(b) Of the lumen of the hepatic duct. 

3. Irritation of mucous membrane due to movement. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 117 

4. Irritation of mucous membrane due to lip attachment result- 
ing in intlamniation, necrosis, and ulceration. 

5. Liberation of chemical substances that produce nervous irri- 
tation or hematolysis. 

The following- parasites infest the intestine of swine : 

1. Ascaris suum. 

2. Esophagostoma dentatum. 

3. Trichoeephalus crenatus. 

4. Trichinella spiralis. 

5. Gigantorhynchus hirudinaceus. 

Ascaris ISimin 

Ascarids are found in practically all hogs. They are not blood- 
suckers in the ordiiiary sense, but may obtain nutrition direct from 
lymph as well as by absorption through the external integument. 
The impregnated female dis^-harges her ova into the intestine and 
they pass out in the feces. If conditions are favorable, the ova 
hatch into embryos wliicii become encysted. V^ hen su. h encysted 
embryos are ingested the digestive juices dissolve their enveloping 
membrane and the embryos are thus liberated. Some of the liberated 
embryos pass directly through the walls of the digestive tube, others 
are entangled in the content of the digestive tube and eliminated 
with the feces and perish. Some of the embryos that pass through 
the walls of the digestive tube gain entrance to blood capillaries and 
are ultimately carried to various parts of the body by means of 
the circulation. The major portion of these embryos probably perish. 
Some of the embryos that have passed through the wall of the 
digestive tube invade the tissues and those that finally reach the 
air cells of the lung and bronchioles develop into larvae. After 
the larvae are fully developed they pass out of the lung by way of 
the air tubes and when they reach the pharynx some of them are 
swallowed and upon reaching the intestine develop into adults. Thus 
the embryonal and larval stage produce disturbances of the lung 
and other organs which will be discussed in the chapters pertaining 
to those organs. 

It has been demonstrated that the embryonal and larval stage of 
the Ascaris suum may occur in rats and possibly also in other animals. 

Lesions. — These parasites are round, and pointed at either end; 
they are white or pinkish-white in color and vary from six inches 
to twelve inches in length. Usuallv they are found in the small 



118 SWINE PRACTICE 

intestine, though they may occur in the large intestine and even in 
the stomach. They attach themselves to the mucous membrane by 
means of papillae or membranous teeth, and produce irritation to 
the mucous membrane as well as provide an avenue of entrance 
for a variety of bacteria which may produce inflammatory lesions 
and even necrosis and ulceration. The entire mucous membrane 
adjacent to the parasites is affected by a catarrhal inflammation. 




Fig. 25. Ascaris Suum. 

Similar disturbances are observed in the mucous membrane of the 
hepatic duct when it is infested. The worms may form a mass that 
completely obstructs the intestine, resulting in an engorgement of 
the intestine anteriorly to the obstruction. Occasionally the intestine 
may be perforated and the offending ascarids found protruding into 
the peritoneal cavity, or they may pass through the intestinal wall 
and some of the intestinal content, and, escaping into the peritoneal 
cavity, produce a general peritonitis. 
Symptoms. — Infestation with a limited niunber of ascarids prob- 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 119 

ably does not produce any notieeable symptoms. The symptoms 
evidenced will vary and depend upon the manner in which the para- 
sites are damaging their host. If the hepatic dnct is obstructed, 
there will be digestive disturbances, associated with icterus. If the 
bowel is obstructed, there will be evidence of obstruction colic. 
Perforation of the bowel will result in peritonitis. The presence 
of several of these parasites may be suspected when there is catarrhal 
enteritis, especially when the swine are being properly cared for and 
given a proper- diet of wholesome food. Usually an occasional worm 
will be passed in the feces. Unless infestation is sufficiently extensive 
to produce visible symptoms, a positive diagnosis may not be made 
until the parasites are eliminated or tlie ova are identified in the 
feces by microscopic examination. If this condition persists for 
some time the affected animals become unthrifty and emaciated. 

Treatment. — Prevention is far more satisfactory than treatment 
of infested hogs. The extent of infestation can be materially dimin- 
ished by keeping the quarters clean. The droppings should be 
gathered and limed, and the fioors in the piggery should be kept 
clean, and limed or sprayed with some agent that is destructive to 
the egg and embryo of the ascarids. Common salt destroys the 
embryo and larvae of practically all animal parasites, but it must 
be used with caution in hog premises, for it is also quite destructive 
to hogs. 

Treatment of individual hogs is not difficult if capsules are used. 
Santonin is probably the most reliable vermifuge for the elimination 
of ascarids. It is advisable to combine santonin with calomel and 
a purgative such as aloin. The dosage for a 50 to 100-pound shote 
should be santonin and calomel 2i/2 grains each and aloin 5 grains. 
It is always advisable to withhold feed and water for at least twelve 
hours, the period depending upon weather conditions, before the 
capsule is administered and tiien provide an ample supply of water 
for the swine so they may drink freely after the capsules have 
been administered. Care must be exercised that the capsule is not 
deposited in the pharyngeal cul-de-sac and that no other injury is 
done by the balling gun. 

Esophagostonia Dent at um 

Esophagostomiasis is a disease caused by the invasion of the 
Esophagostonia dentatum into the submucosa of the large intestine 
of swine, a condition not very common in America. This parasite 



120 SWINE PKACTICE 

is parasitic in its larval stage. Its life cycle has nut been entirely 
worked out, but the ova are discharged from the animal body in 
the feces and hatch, if climatic conditions are favorable, into em- 
bryos. Later changes are unknown, but the larvae are ingested 
with food or drink and bore into the submucosa of the large intes- 
tine, where they remain from six to seven months and produce small 
nodules in which they undergo various metamorphoses, finally be- 
coming sexually mature. They then leave the submucosa nodules 
and migrate into the lumen of the intestine, where copulation occurs 
and the female later ovulates in the same location. 

Lesions. — The principal lesion is the submucous nodule that occurs 
in the large intestine. There may be only a few nodules, or there 
may be many. These nodules are inflammatory, caused by the pres- 
ence of the larvae. They are definitely circumscribed with a fibrous 
capsule; the content of which is inflammatory exudate that later 
becomes purulent, then caseous, and may ultimately calcify. The 
nodules first cause a slight, hard, spherical elevation of the mucous 
membrane about the size of millet seed, but they may later become 
as large as a pea. In the later stages they assume a greenish-gray 
cast due to the accumulation in them of pus. The nodules frequently 
produce erosions and ulceration of flie intestinal mucosa, and they 
may persist and appear as caseated incapsulated masses. The adult 
parasites may be found free in the large intestine. They are about 
three-fourths of an inch in length. 

Symptoms. — The extent of invasion sufficient to produce visible 
symptoms has not been determined, but it is not uncommon to find 
a few nodules in the intestine of swine that were slaughtered in 
packing houses and were known to have been previously healthy. 
The usual symptoms consist of a profuse and persistent diarrhea, 
emaciation, weakness, and death in the intensely infested animals. 
The disease is essentially clironic. The course is from two to three 
months. 

Treatment. — Because of the location of the offending larvae, medi- 
cation is of no avail. A small percentage of the animals may be 
saved by dieting and treating the symptoms as they arise. Preven- 
tion of further spread of the disease should be the chief consideration. 

Trichocephahis Croiatus 
This parasite is not of common occurrence in America. The worm; 
are in shape similar to the old-fashioned blaeksnake whip, the head 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 121 

end very thin and liair-like, the posterior extremity being thicker 
and thread-like. They are usually coiled, and are from one to one 
and one-quarter inches in length. Their life cycle is similar to that 
of the Esophagostoma. Infestation is accomplished through the food 
or drink. 

Lesions. — The Trichocephali are blood suckers, but they appear 
to do very little da'hiage unless they occur in large numbers. When 
they produce anemia there is also more or less intestinal catarrh. 
The parasites are fotlnd firmly attached to the mucous membrane 
of the large intestihfe. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptoms are diarrhea, emaciation, and 
weakness. 

Treatment. — Pratiticdlly the same as described for the Ascaris 
suum. 

Trichinella Spiralis 

Trichinella spiralis passes ollly the adiilt stage of its life cycle in 
the intestine. The larvae are Iriijiortant muscle parasites. Further 
discussion will be found under "Aluscular Parasites." 

Gigantorhynchus Hirudinaceus 

This, the thorn-headed intestiilal worm of swine, is quite preva- 
lent in practically all sections of this country. It is a thick, cylin- 
drical, white worm with an atterluated tail portion, transverse mark- 
ings, and a head provided with a globular proboscis having several 
rows of hooks. The ova pass 16 the ground with the feces and are 
ingested by the larva of the May beetle, in which it passes a portion 
of its life cycle, the embryo and larval stages. Hogs consume the May- 
beetle larva and the inclosed gigantorhynchus larva is liberated and 
passes into and attaches to the intestine of the hog. It is thought 
that the ova may develop elsewhere as well as in the May-beetle larva. 

Lesions. — Upon opening the abdomen of a swine infested with 
the Gigantorhynchus, shiny nodules of a grayish color are readily 
visible on the serous coat of the intestine. The thorn of the worm, 
is found to have penetrated the mucosa, and thus permits of infec- 
tion which results in the production of an inflammatory zone. Tht 
parasites may become detached, the lesions produced having healed bj 
the formation of cicatricial tissue, which is usually easily recognized 
Not infrequently the head of tlie parasite bores through the entiri 
intesinal wall and occasions general peritonitis. 



122 SWINE PRACTIGE 

Sym2)to}}is. — The usual symptoms consist of digestive disturbance 
the magnitude of which will depend upon the extent of infestation. 
The infested animal usually gives evidence of pain, as the parasite 
lacerates the tissues during its attachment. There may also be mus- 
cular twitching. 

Treatment. — These parasites are diflcult to dislodge. Long- 




Fig. 26. Gigantorhynchus Hirudinaceous. 

continued medication with creosote alterated with copper sulphate 
has proved effectual in many cases. 

TUMORS 

Intestinal tumors are not prevalent and are of little economic 
importance. 

Connective tissue tumors may develop and mechanically interfere 
with intestinal movement or they may obstruct the lumen of the 
bowel. Fibromas and myxomas have been observed, usually having 
their origin in the subserosa or within the serous coat of the intes- 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 123 

tine. These tumors are definitely encapsulated. It is usually not 
possible to make a diagnosis except by autopsy. 

Of the malignant tumors, carcinoma, epithelioma, adenoma, and 
different varieties of sarcoma have been identified. The embryonic 
epithelial tumors may be primary or secondary. Primary epithelial 
tumors usually have their origin in or from the mucous membrane. 
Secondary epithelial tumors may involve any portion of the intes- 
tinal wall and are more frequently encapsulated than the primary 
tumors. The primary epithelial tumors, especially epitheliomas, are 
very prone to produce necrosis of the surface mucous membrane 
and thus cause ulceration. 

General sarcomatosis of the entire abdominal viscera is occasionally 
observed. Sarcomas in swine are apparently not so malignant as 
in other domesticated animals, and are more frequently encapsu- 
lated. The appearance of the various malignant tumors in swine 
is the same or very similar to that of the same type of tumor in 
other animals. 

Intestinal malignant tumors, generally speaking, are evidenced 
by nnthriftiness, indigestion, emaciation, marasmus and finally by 
death. 

Diarrhea (Dysentery) 

Diarrhea is a common symptom of a variety of diseases and con- 
ditions. In some instances there is an apparent diarrhea without any 
associated disease or condition. Diarrhea in young pigs — "pigs scour" 
is discussed in detail on page 

Etiology. — The usual cause of diarrhea is improper diet; moldy or 
fermented feed and immature feed, such as soft corn, are common 
causes of diarrhea. Sudden changes from dry to green feed or to 
garbage is frequently responsible for the production of diarrhea in 
swine. Diarrhea is also an outstanding symptom of diseases of the 
digestive tract, particularly necrotic enteritis. 

Symptoms. — Diarrhea is manifested by frequent evacuations of the 
bowel, the discharge being of a semi-fluid or fluid consistency. The 
affected animals usually drink excessively, although their appetite 
may be normal or only slightly altered. If the condition continues 
the affected animals become thin and gaunt. 

Treatment. — The cause should be determined and removed. A diet 
of relatively dry feed should be provided. The supply of water 
should be so regulated that the aft'ected animals get less than the nor- 



124 SWINE PRACTICE 

mal amount. Oleaginous purgatives, such as castor oil frequently 
repeated in relatively small doses, should be administered until the 
content of the intestine has been removed. Intestinal antiseptics 
should be administered in the feed. If the diarrhea is not corrected 
by the use of oleaginous purgatives and intestinal antiseptics, bis- 
muth subnitrate in dram doses should be used. 

Constipation 

Constipation is a condition in which the fecal matter becomes 
relatively dry and hard and there is infrequent and inComjplete 
elimination from the bowel. It is a syaiptohi of a variety of diseases 
and may occur as a primary coMitioU. 

Etiology. — Constipation as a pl*irfidi*y ebiidition is usilally pro- 
duced by imttbti^t* feeding or illsllftitit'nt exercise. Feeding upon 
dry bulky feeds, especially if water is sU^i^lied in limited quanti- 
ties, usually results in constipation. When sV^^ine are closely con- 
fined, as is frequently the case with fattening hogs, brood sows or 
boars or when there is no inducement to take exercise, constipation 
is likely to occur. Intestinal parasitism may cause constipation. In 
the various febrile diseases constipation is a common symptom. 

Symptoms. — Frequently attempts to defecate with the passage of 
small quantities of hard feces is the prominent symptom of constipa- 
tion. There may be a fullness of the abdomen, and in some eases 
accumulation of gas in the intestine may be observed. If the consti- 
pation continues for several days the affected animal will have a 
diminished appetite and may show evidence of colicky pains. Af- 
fected animals are dull and have a tendenc}^ to assume the decubital 
position. As a result of frequent straining in attempting to de- 
fecate there may be eversion of the rectum. In extreme cases the af- 
fected animals may vomit. 

Treatment. — If the diet is found to have been the principal causa- 
tive factor it should be corrected. Arrangements should be made for 
proper exercise of the affected animals. Slop feed in limited quanti- 
ty and an abundance of water should be provided. In severe cases 
enemas will be found of value. Care must be exercised not to over- 
dilate the intestine and it is advisable to use a warm solution to stimu- 
late intestinal movement. 

Laxatives or purgatives may be administered, providing the pos- 
terior bowel is not impacted with dry fecal matter. Castor oil or 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 125 

linseed oil may be administered by means of a dose syringe, giving 
relatively large doses. 

Prolapse of the Anus and Rectum 

Prolapsus ani is a condition in which the mucous membrane of 
the rectum protrudes through the anus. The protrusion of the 
mucous membrane occurs normally during defecation, particularly 
in the horse. Prolapsus recti is a protrusion of the entire intestinal 
structure of the rectum through the anus. 

Prolapsus ani is relatively common in swine and occasional cases 
of prolapsus recti are observed. Several pigs weighing 50 to 70 
pounds each, were observed affected with prolapsus ani. These pigs 
were on pasture and were being fed middlings in slop. 

Etiology. — Protrusion of the rectal mucosa or the entire rectal 
structure is caused by increased abdominal pressure. These cases 
are frequently observed in swine in which there has been severe diar- 
rhea. Constipation or intestinal obstruction may cause prolapsus 
ani or recti. Proctitis induced by hot or irritating enemas may cause 
this disturbance. Restraint of exceptionally resistant animals may 
produce temporary or permanent prolapsus. 

Symptoms. — In prolapsus recti a hemispherical mass of mucous 
membrane, red and sensitive, projects from the anus. A larger 
and more dense swelling is present than in prolapsus ani and it be- 
comes edematous. In some cases of prolapsus recti the intestinal 
structure may protrude four to eight inches from the anus. In cases 
of prolapsus that have persisted for several days the mucous mem- 
brane becomes dry and may undergo necrosis and slough, thus af- 
fecting a spontaneous recovery. In cases of prolapsus recti in which 
there is a noticeable protrusion, the protruded portion usually be- 
comes injured from lying down or is lacerated by other pigs. 

Treatment. — Prolapsus ani of recent development may be cor- 
rected by first cleansing the protruding mucous membrane and then 
by steady pressure it can usually be forced into its normal position. 
Straining or tenesmus may be prevented by the use of rectal in- 
jections of chloral hydrate or oleaginous substances. The causative 
factor of diarrhea or constipation should be relieved, the medica- 
ment employed depending upon indications. 

Prolapsus recti of recent origin may be corrected by the same pro- 
cedure as indieated for overcoming prolapsus ani. In cases of long 



126 SWJNE PRACTICE 

standiiig- surgical Interference is necessary. The protruding portions 
sliould be cleaned and two needles with double thread passed through 
tlie entire mass. The protruding portion can thus be ligated in four 
places by combining one thread from each of the sutures. After 
the ligation has been completed the protruding portion may be re- 
moved by a scalpel. In such operative cases it is necessary to give 
an enema or produce a liquid condition of the feces by means of 
purgatives. 

Liver 

The liver is a very important organ physiologically, and it is of 
such magnitude that derangement of its function and disease usually 
result in marked metabolic disturbance of the affected animal. The 
diseases of the liver of swine have not received clinical consider- 
ation, and little is known of the pathologic conditions in the liver of 
swine excepting- the observations recorded by men employed in the 
inspection of meat. 

:malformations 

Malformations of the liver are not of much importance. There 
may be too few or too many lobes. The lobes may be entirely sepa- 
rated. Karely, the gall-bladder is wanting. 

FOREIGN BODIES 

Several hog livers have been observed that contained quantities of 
sand or cinders, varj'ing in volume from an ounce to a quart. These 
cases have been observed in swine killed at abattoirs, and without 
exception the affected animals were in prime condition. 

The avenue of entrance of the sand and cinders is no doubt through 
the hepatic duct. The manner in which the foreign substances gain 
entrance and "back-tell" in the ducts to the gall bladder and from 
there into the collecting cystic ducts in the liver has not been de- 
termined. The hepatic duct orifice in the summit of the duodenal 
papilla probably becomes enlarged through injury, or atrophy of 
the surrounding mucosa, and this, in conjunction with a full stomach 
and intestine, would facilitate the passage of the foreign substance 
through the orifice and into the hepatic duct. The irritation of the 
foreign substance may cause relaxation of the sphincter muscles and 
also establish reverse peristalsis. It may be possible that the cause 
may be due to irregular action of the intestinal musculature. In 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 127 

all of the eases observed the hepatic duct was found gorged with the 
foreign material, the duct in some instances being more than one 
inch in diameter; the cystic duct and gall bladder were found to 
contain varying quantities of the same material. In one case the 
gall bladder was so engorged with sand that it had dilated until it 
was fully as large as a quart measure. The foreign substance, either 
cinders or sand, may also be found in the ducts that convey the bile 
to the gall bladder. In some instances the biliary capillaries con- 
tained considerable quantities of sand. The accumulations obstruct- 
ing the outflow of bile result in icterus of varying intensity. There 
is also a catarrhal inflammation of the adjacent intestinal mucosa and 
the mucous membrane of the bile tubules, gall-bladder, and hepatic 
duct. 

RUPTURE 

Rupture or laceration of the liver does occur, although it is not so 
common in swine as in most other animals because the abdominal 
wall of swine is comparatively thick, due to the deposition of sub- 
cutaneous fat. 

Etiology. — The usual cause of hepatic rupture is mechanical inter- 
ference in the form of a sudden blow% such as the kick pf a mule or 
the penetration of the liver with some sharp object which may 
lacerate the hepatic tissue. 

Lesions. — If the hepatic lesion has caused sudden death the peri- 
toneal cavity will contain a large quantity of blood which may or 
may not be coagulated, depending upon the length of time after 
death that the autopsy is conducted. If the injury is an old lesion, 
cicatricial tissue will have sealed the wound and perhaps, by con- 
traction, distorted the liver. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms evidenced will be shock, weakness, and 
blanched visible mucous membranes due to loss of blood from the 
blood vascular system. Should the animal survive the immediate 
effect of the injury and the loss of blood, there may be symptoms 
only of impaired hepatic function, or there may be no visible symp- 
toms. 

Treatment. — Because of the nature of hepatic rupture, treatment 
is of no avail. In cases that will probably have a fatal termination 
the animal may be bled to death and the carcass thus saved for 
meat. 



128 SWINE PRACTICE 

ICTERUS 

Icterus or jaundice is a condition resulting from the deposition 
of bile or bile pigments in the various tissues. This condition is 
relatively common and is signiticant as a diagnostic factor. 

Etiology. — Icterus may be the result of obstructed outtlow of bile. 
It may result from excessive destruction of red blood cells, of failure 
of elimination of bile from the blood. Obstructed outtlow of bile 
may be due to calculi, parasites, or foreign bodies in the bile ducts, 
closure of the duct by cicatrices, muscular spasms, tumors, abscess, 
aneurysms, fecal matter, parasitic cysts, or inflammatory disturbances 
of the mucous membrane of the duodenum or the various bile ducts. 
Excessive production of bile in the blood occurs as a result of 
hemolysis due to chemic substances in such diseases as hog cholera, 
swine plague, septicemia, pyemia, generalized anthrax, phosphorous 
and phenol poisoning, and also as a result of the injection of the 
venom of some poisonous snakes. Failure of elimination of bile 
occurs not only when the outlets are obstructed but also when con- 
siderable numbers of liver cells have been destroyed or their function- 
al capacity diminished. 

Lesions. — Bile staining is most evident in the conjunctiva and 
ocular sclera of the living animal, where it produces a lemon-yellow 
or greenish-yellow discoloration. If the reabsorption of bile is very 
extensive it may appear in the urine. In carcasses biliary pigmenta- 
tion is most evident in the adipose tissues, especially the subcutane- 
ous fat, although it is usually well marked in the subserous fat and 
may be detected in the lymph nodes, spleen, kidney, and muscular 
tissues. On microscopic examination the bile pigments may be found 
in the cells or between the cells as greenish-yellow amorphous 
granules. 

Symptoms. — The effects of icterus are variable. The tissues are 
discolored ; there may be pruritus, cardiac depression, voinition, 
coma, and death. The symptoms above outlined are probably not 
due to the presence of the bile pigments in the tissue, but to other 
substances that have not been eliminated. 

Treatment. — Removal of the cause is usually all that is required 
for complete recovery from icterus. If the cause cannot be identi- 
fied, then the symptoms should be treated as they arise, purgation 
and especially calomel in 5 to 10 grain doses are of value in these 
cases. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 129 



CLOUDY SWELLING 



Cloudy swelling, or parenchj^matons degeneration, is a condition 
in which a portion of the cell protoplasm is coagulated. This con- 
dition is very common. It is frequently the forerunner of fatty 
changes. 

Etiology. — Coagulation of portions of the cell protoplasm may be 
caused by high temperature, as is evidenced in fever or overheat, 
or it may be caused by bacterial products and other chemical poisons. 

Lesions. — The affected liver is enlarged, paler in color and more 
friable than normal. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are usually associated with those of 
other disturbances and are therefore not specitic. There is evidence 
of disturbed hepatic function, and often a slight icterus and ten- 
dency to constipation. 

Treatment. — To ascertain and then remove the cause is of prime 
importance. This condition is corrected only through the efforts of 
the body, therefore, provide the proper diet and maintain sanitary 
conditions. 

FATTY CHANGES 

Fatty changes in the liver are of common occurrence in swine. The 
usual change is first an accumulation of fat droplets between the 
cells and later a fatty degeneration of the cells. 

Etiology. — Fatty changes in the liver may be due to excessive 
nutrition, diminished exercise, hereditary influences, long-continued 
fever, bacterial products, and such chemical poisons as phosphorus. 
Fatty degeneration of hepatic tissue is sometimes observed in con- 
ditions associated with malnutrition. 

Lesions. — The liver is enlarged, gray or grayish-red in color and 
lighter than normal in weight; when incised, droplets of fat or oil 
may be observed on the knife. Fatty changes are usually uniformly 
distributed in the entire liver; however, in exceptional cases, one 
lobe only may be involved. 

Symptoms. — The evidences of fatty changes in the liver are not 
characteristic. The condition may be suspected in obese animals or 
those known to be affected with chronic arsenic, antimony, or phos- 
phorous poisoning. 

Treatment. — There is no treatment that is of any special value 
other than to correct the diet. 



13.0 SWINE PRACTICE 



AMYLOID CHANGES 



Am^-loid changes in the liver are rather uncommon in swine. The 
cause is unknown. The affected liver is larger, paler, and firmer 
than normal. The amyloid areas are homogeneous and translucent in 
appearance, the amylaceous substances usually occurring in definite 
foci, though they may be quite diffuse. This condition may be as- 
sociated with other diseases which tend to mask any specific symp- 
toms. One case of amyloid change has been observed in a hog that 
clinically showed no manifestation of disease and was in prime con- 
dition at the time of slaughter. The amylaceous substance is in- 
soluble, and the condition is therefore probably incurable. 

GLYCOGENIC INFILTRATION 

Glycogenic infiltration is a condition in which excessive quantities 
of glycogen accumulate in the liver. This condition is observed oc- 
casionally in the liver of slaughtered swine. 

Etiology. — Disturbed carbohydrate metabolism is inseparably as- 
sociated with glycogenic infiltration, although the specific relation of 
disturbed carbohydrate metabolism and glycogenic infiltration is not 
known. Infiammatory disturbances and tumor formation appear to 
have some relationship with glycogenic infiltration. 

Lesions.— A glycogenic infiltrated liver is pale, larger than normal, 
and of a putty consistency. 

iSyniptoms. — No definite symptoms are attributed to the excessive 
accumulation of glycogen in the liver. The condition may be 
suspected when the animals are sluggish and do not exercise, as it 
has been demonstrated that during muscular activity glycogen is 
used in considerable quantities and is drawn from the „ storehouse, 
which is the liver, as it is required. 

Treatment. — Regulation of diet and exercise are far more valuable 
than medicinal treatment. 

GALL-STONES (CHOLELITHIASIS) 

Gall-stones are accumulations of organic or inorganic substances 
in the various bile tubes or gall bladder. They are relatively com- 
mon in swine. 

Etiologij. — The presence of a substance that will act as a nucleus 
is the first step in th*^ formation of a calculus. Precipitation of some 
of the bile ingredients is the second step in calculus formation, and 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 131 

the accumulation of the precipitate upon the nucleus completes the 
process. Bits of mucus or any particle of foreign matter may 
serve as a nucleus. Precipitation may be caused by supersaturation 
of the bile with inorganic salts, or it may be a sequel of fermentation 
of bile. In addition, bacteria and other factors may be causative 
agents of calculus formation. 

Infection of the gall-bladder provides the necessary conditions for 
the formation of gall-stones and is probably the most important 
cause of their formation. 

Lesions. — Cholelithiasis, or gall-stones, is found most frequently in 
the gall-bladder. It may occur, however, in the hepatic duct or in 
any of the collecting bile tubes regardless of their size. The presence, 
of gall-tones usually causes obstruction and distention of the gall 
l)ladder or of the bile tubes in which they occur. If the obstruction 
has existed for some time, icterus will usually be more or less pro- 
nounced. 

Upon opening the gall-bladder or bile ducts containing the cal- 
culi, thick grumose bile escapes and the concrements or calculi are 
observed. Gall-stones may occur singly, but they are usually multi- 
ple. They are usually of a brownish-chocolate color and vary in 
size from mere specks to masses an inch or more in diameter. They 
may be round or any other shape, and when many are present they 
are usually faceted when they come into contact with each other. The 
gall-stones may be composed of organic material entirely and be 
quite soft or they may be encrusted with mineral matter and be 
quite hard. Upon sectioning them they are usually fovmd to have 
been made up in layers, and it is not difficult to distinguish the 
nucleus. There is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the 
gall-bladder or affected bile tubes. 

Symptoms. — Very few if any cases of cholelithiasis have been recog- 
nized clinically. If the gall-stones obstruct the outflow of bile suf- 
ficiently there will be general icterus. There are probably some 
digestive disturbances also. 

Treatment. — The administration of purgatives, especially calomel, 
is indicated and should be administered regularly in small doses. 
The treatment will probably not produce permanent relief, but the 
icteric condition may be overcome by the action of the calomel and 
the meat made fit for human consumption and the animal can be 
slaughtered. 



132 SWINE PRACTICE 



HYPEREMIA 



Hyperemia of the liver may be physiologic or pathologic. Physio- 
logic hepatic hyperemia occurs after eating and is of no significance 
economically or pathologically. Pathologic hepatic hyperemia may 
be either venous (passive) or arterial (active). 

Passive hepatic hyperemia is caused by obstructed outflow of blood. 
Cardiac defects of the valves of the right side of the heart are a 
potent cause. Obstruction of the posterior vena cava or the hepatic 
vein by new growths, abscesses, and cicatricial tissue will also pro- 
duce venous engorgement of the liver. 

Lesions. — A careful examination will disclose the lesion producing 
the engorgement as well as the engorged condition of the liver. The 
liver will be full of blood and of a slightly darker color than nor- 
mal. Jf the condition becomes chronic there will be fibrous pro- 
liferation. 

Symjytoms. — The signs of venous hepatic hyperemia vary according 
to the intensity of the condition and its duration. The animals be- 
come dull, and there is only a sluggish action of the bowels. If the 
condition progresses until there is fibrous proliferation, distur])ances 
of nutrition become evident. 

Arterial hepatic hyperemia may be the result of involvement of the 
hepatic artery or of the portal vein. This is a condition character- 
ized by an increased inflow of blood into the liver. Hyperemia of 
the hepatic artery is not common, and when it does occur it is 
usually chronic. This condition is usually the result of partial 
occlusion of the gastric or splenic branches of the celiac axis, al- 
though it may be caused by some irritation in the terminal vessels 
in the hepatic interstitial tissue. No definite symptoms are evi- 
denced, and the value of treatment is doubtful. 

Portal hepatic hyperemia is usually caused by tainted foods or by 
infection. The liver may be increased fifty per cent in volume, and 
becomes gorged with blood. The symptoms are obscure. Some re- 
lief may be obtained by the free use of laxatives. 

Treatment. — The removal of the cause, if that be possible, is about 
all that can be accomplished. 

HEPATITIS 

Inflammation of the liver, or hepatitis, is rather common in swine. 
The condition mav assume either an acute or chronic form. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 133 

Hepatitis as a rule is seeondai-y to otiier disturbances, altliou^li it 
may occasioually be primary. Tlie intlauunatory process maj^ affect 
the liver cells and is then designated parenchymatous hepatitis, or 
it may affect the supporting framework, when it is designated 
interstitial hepatitis. With but few exceptions hepatitis of swine has 
not been made a subject of special investigation. An enzootic 
hepatitis of young pigs occurred in Russia and was investigated by 
Senimer. This disease has also occurred in eastern Prussia, where 
it has been very fatal. The cause of this condition is probably a 
coccus which is thouglit to gain entrance into the umbilicus at the 
time of farrowing. The affected liver is enlarged, nodular and 
variegated in color. 

Aeiiie ParenchijHKitoHs Hepatitis 

Acute parenchymatous hepatitis is a destructive intiammation in- 
volving the liver cells. 

Etiologij. — Chemic poisons derived from the bowel and carried to 
the liver by way of \hs portal vein are fre(pient causes of this con- 
dition. Bacterial infection entering the liver by way of the portal 
vein, hepatic artery, hepatic vein, umbilical vein, or hepatic duct is 
a common cause of hepatitis. The Distoma or liver flukes, the 
larval form of Stephanurus dentatum, and other parasites produce 
hepatitis. 

Lesions. — The liver becomes enlarged and loses its sharp outlines; 
it is darker in color, gorged with blood, and is more friable than the 
normal liver. There may be small hemorrhagic areas. 

Symptoms. — Icterus is usually the first and frequently the only 
evidence of the disease. The affected swine may show symptoms of 
pain when defecating or when moving about. 

Treatment. — Laxatives may produce some relief. The proper diet 
should be given and the animals made comfortable. 

Suppurative Hepatitis 

Su]ipui-ative hepatitis as a primary condition is not very common 
in swine. ' ' , 

Etiology. — This condition is, as a rule, the result of bacterial in- 
fection, although parasites of various kinds may produce it. The 
infection in the liver is usually secondary and metastatic. Pyogenic 
staphylococci and streptococci are the most common infecting agents. 



134 SWINE PRACTICE 

although the colon bacilli and its various derivatives have been identi 
tied in the pus from liver abscesses. 

Lesio7is. — The liver contains suppurative centers of varying di- 
mensions. The foci may occur throughout the entire liver and be 
microscopic in size, causing a uniform enlargement of the liver, or 
the suppurative centers may be as large as walnuts and appear as 
small abscesses. The liver will be engorged with blood, more friable 
than normal, and it may be variegated in color, due to alternating 
small hemorrhagic areas and suppurative foci. 

Larger suppurative centers are gray in color and may or may not 
be circumscribed by a capsule of fibrous tissue. The content may 
be semifluid pus or it may be caseous or even calcified. 

Symptoms. — The evidence of suppurative hepatitis consists of gen- 
eral depression. The animal does not move of its own volition. There 
is pain on palpation of the abdomen (if abdominal walls are not too 
thick), and icterus. Less extensive suppuration of the liver may not 
produce any distinct symptoms. 

Treatment. — The animal should be made as comfortable as possible 
and the evacuation of the bowel content facilitated by the use of 
laxatives. 

A type of hepatitis associated with a perilobular eosinophylic 
infiltration has been observed. These cases are of rather common 
occurrence in meat inspection but apparently are of little signifi- 
cance clinically, at least we are unable to find any reports of cases 
from practitioners. The cause of eosinophylic infiltration into the 
liver has not been determined but it is probably associated with para- 
sitic invasion, perhaj)s more particularly with the migration of the 
larval form of parasites such as the ascarids. 

Affected livers are enlarged and contain small grayish white 
centers. On microscopic examination the white centers are found 
to be masses of eosinophylic leucocytes. Local invasions of eosino- 
philes have been observed in other tissues and appear to depend 
upon the motility of the eosinophiles, although technicians claim 
that these cells are not motile. Chemic substances derived from 
parasites may produce an activity of the eosinophiles or may 
stimulate these cells to multiply in the field of action. The phe- 
nomenon is certainly the response of some abnormal stimulus and 
in a general way is parallel to the neutrophylic, polymorphic, leucocy- 
tic migration toward a suppurating center. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 135 

Acute Interstitial Hepatitis 

Acute interstitial hepatitis is not a common condition but it does 
occur in swine and therefore should receive some consideration. 

Etiology. — The cause of acute interstitial hepatitis probably al- 
ways enters the liver by way of the hepatic artery, and is most fre- 
quently due to bacterial infection or animal parasitic invasion. 
The various suppurative bacteria, Bacillus coli communis or some 
of its derivatives and Bacillus necrophorus, may be the causative 
agent. Protozoan parasites and the larvae of some vermes are re- 
sponsible for some cases of acute interstitial hepatitis. 

Lesions. — The liver is enlarged and appears to be affected with 
chronic interstitial hepatitis because the interlobular tissue is in- 
filtrated with leukocytes. The liver tissue is soft and friable. Micro- 
scopic study of these livers has revealed the fact that in nearly every 
instance the infiltration leukocytes are practically all eosinophiles. 

Symptoms. — Few if any investigations of these cases have been 
made clinically or at least such have not been reported. The marked 
interlobular infiltration tends to obstruct the biliary capillaries, 
causing reabsorption of bile with accompanying icterus. 

Treatment. — The nature of this condition permits of little if any 
relief by the use of drugs. Providing the proper diet and sur- 
roundings are provided, treating the symptoms as they arise is ap- 
parently all that can be advised for the relief of this condition. 

Chronic Interstitial Hepatitis {Cirrhosis-Sclerosis) 

Chronic interstitial hepatitis, cirrhosis or sclerosis of the liver, con- 
sists of a proliferation of fibrous tissue which damages and ulti- 
mately displaces some of the functional liver tissue. The condition is 
rather common, especially in swine fed upon fermented products, 
such as distillery waste, or garbage. 

Etiology. — This condition is due to injurious chemical agents de- 
rived either from the food or from bacterial action, that is, those 
substances that are capable of producing a mild degree of irritation. 
Animal parasites, either by direct mechanical irritation or irritation 
by eliminated chemicals, also produce chronic interstitial hepatitis. 
The condition, too, may be secondary to other disease processes. 

Lesions. — Chronic interstitial hepatitis is essentially a prolifer- 
ation of fibrous tissue. The fibrous tissue may be produced within 
the liver lobule, causing an enlargement of the lobules and also of 



136 



SWINE I'KACTK 10 



the liver. This type is desioimted hypertrophic sclerosis of the liver. 
Such a liver is enlaro-ed, dense, increased in weiglit, lighter in color, 
and when cut gives the impression of cutting fibrous tissue. In 
other instances the proliferation of fibrous tissue occurs in the inter- 
lobular tissue only. This newly formed fibrous tissue later contracts, 
thus diminishing the size of the affected lobules, and therefore the 
liver as a whole. This condition is termed atrophic sclerosis. Such a 

















/^■'•■";'''-~;5."-- '0 * * - ' '\ 




f\ 1'-- * t .' ■/ ♦ -^-v X - ; * * * 




/>-•.■♦ r;^ »15.''- » *■ > v^ »-•»•: ^ 




■■f<\^'.'-,:i>:^-iS3r?'''' 








AJ \-^ '■»'.» \' . •■'^, '-;'■;..« 








i,/(.'-v'^ .vv/. : :-^^'-» • 




,i^^/^^-\'\^'v-^r. *■>•.-• T/;-. 


a.- 








'^1 




1^ 








» t'.ji^ 



Fig. 27. CHUoxic HKPATiTis. a Liver cell; b fibroua proliferation. 



liver usually has an irregular outline ( h()l)nail-liver) and is smaller, 
denser, and lighter in color than a normal liver. It is possible that 
hypertrophic sclerosis, or the formation of new fibrous tissue through- 
out the entire liver lobule, follows when the irritant is introduced 
througli the ])()rtal vein, and atrophic sclerosis occurs when the ir- 
ritant is introduced througli the hejiatic ai-fery. 

Sijiuptoins. — Hepatic sclerosis has ;iii insidious onset. Probably the 
first evidence of the disease is digestive derangement, which later 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 137 

may be aceoiiipanied by icterus. The animals become unthrifty and 
finally weak and emaciated. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause and prevent further progress of 
the disease. A strict diet and the maintaining of a laxative condi- 
tion of the boAvel may permit the affected animals to be gotten into 
condition for slaughter. 

TUMORS 

Hepatic tumors are frequently observed by veterinary inspectors 
in abattoirs, but these tumors are rarely of sufficient magnitude to 
have produced visible symptoms in the animal prior to slaughter. 

The various kinds of tumors that have been observed in the liver 
of swine are true to the type for the same tumors in other animals. 
The malignant tumors of the liver frequently are found to be second- 
ary. Of the types of liver tumors tlie following have been identified, 
lipoma, myxoma, angioma, sarcoma, adenoma, epithelioma, and 
carcinoma. 

No definite symptoms of hepatic tumors can be described; often 
there is no outward evidence. There may be digestive disorders, 
emaciation, and evidence of malnutrition. 

The treatment of hepatic tumors in swine is not practicable. 

PARASITES 

Parasitic invasion of the liver is very common in swine. The re- 
sult of hepatic parasitism has not attracted the attention of the 
clinician, but it has caused considerable concern Avith the inspectors 
of meat and food products. In the middle section of the United 
States the livers of the majority of swine evidence parasitism or 
lesions indicating previous parasitic invasion and activity. Para- 
sitic conditions of the liver of swine are of considerable economic 
importance because of the condemnation, and therefore the loss, of 
this organ as a food product. 

Coccidiosis 

Liver abscesses containing Coccidia have been observed. The 
conditions are not very common. Johne observed in swine abscesses 
as large as an apple that contained a Coccidium to which he at- 
tributed the cause. 



138 SWINE PRACTICE 

Stephanurosis 

Liver lesions in swine cine to invasion by the Stephannrns denta- 
tum are rather common. This parasite may gain entrance into the 
body either through the skin or through the digestive tube. The 
lesions succeeding skin entry are usually found in and around the 
kidney and the lesions succeeding digestive tube entry are apparently 
confined to the liver. The life cycle of this parasite has not been 
positively proved, but it is probable that the adult produces ova 
while in lesions established in the animal body. The lesions in and 
around the kidney provide an avenue of elimination of the ova by 
way of the urinary passages, but the lesions in the liver are usually 
of such a nature that there is little chance for the ova to escape. 
The ova hatch outside of the animal body into embryos which after 
molting contaminate food and are ingested or infest the skin and 
permeate the tissue and establish lesions in which the young para- 
sites develop to maturity and ovulate. 

The mode of entrance of these parasites into the liver may be by 
way of the hepatic duct, through the portal vein, or by direct mi- 
gration from the peritoneal cavity through the liver capsule. They 
establish inflammation accompanied by the formation of pus and 
later necrosis of the liver tissue. The entire lesion is surrounded by 
a rather dense white fibrous connective-tissue capsule. From one 
to three of the parasites are found in the necrotic purulent ma- 
terial. The content of the lesion later becomes caseous and may 
ultimately calcify. 

No symptoms have been observed in the liver that could be at- 
tributed to the direct action of the Stephanurus. 

Remedial treatment is not available, but preventive measures 
should be taken to avoid future disturbances. The exact life cycle 
of the parasite is not known, but general sanitary regulations are 
always in order and wdll no doubt be of value in preventing or at 
least diminishing the extent of future infestations. 

Ascaridiasis 

An occasional ascarid migrates into the liver by way of the 
hepatic duct. These parasites in this location mechanically ob- 
struct the outflow of bile and also produce sufficient local irritation 
to establish a catarrhal inflammation of the hepatic duct, the gall 
bladder, or the bile duct. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 139 

Icterus, associated with digestive derangement, will probably be 
the only evidence of the presence of this parasite in any portion of 
the liver or its excretory duct. 

The location of the parasite prohibits the successful use of 
therapeutic agents. The possibility of invasion into any of the 
hepatic structures may be diminished by frequent medication of the 
swine with agents previously mentioned that will eliminate these 
parasites from the bowel. Frequent cleaning, and removal of the 
excrement from the pens, yards, or barns, will tend to diminish in- 
festation. 

Distomatosis 

This is a condition resulting from the invasion of the liver by the 
Distoma hepaticum, Distoma Americanum, or Distoma lanceolatum. 
All are commonly called flukes. Distomatosis occurs most frequent- 
ly in animals kept upon low, marshy, or swampy lands. Swine 
raised in the southern part of the United States are commonly 
infested. The exact life cycle of these parasites has been carefully 
worked out and may be obtained by reference to works on para- 
sites ; suffice here to say that the ova are eliminated from the liver 
in the bile and pass to the outside in the fecal matter. After several 
changes the embryos are found upon vegetation which is consumed 
by their hosts. They find their way up the hepatic duct and on into 
the bile tubes within the liver. 

Lesions. — The lesions established by the different 
types of Distoma are slightly different. The Dis- 
toma hepaticum remains for six months in the bile 
tubes in the liver where it produces obstruction of 
bile and inflammation of the bile tubes. The ac- 
cu'mulated bile causes distention of the bile tube, 
which is usually very evident, particularly upon 
the posterior surface of the liver. The dilated bile 
fr^k/^ tube is found to be thickened and contains thick- 

Fig. 28. Distoma ened flocculent bile and flukes in some stage of 
a Int^estines™ development, depending upon the length of time 

b. oral sucker. after invasion that the autopsy is conducted. 

c. "Ventral sucker. mi -r\- j * • •J.^ • • xi, 

d. uterus. ^^^ Distoma Americanum either remains m the 

bile tubes or passes out into the substance of the 
liver, where it produces a cyst. Tlie cysts, which attain the size of a 
hen's e^g, are evidenced by grayish-black elevations upon the surface 




140 yWJNE PRACTICE 

of the liver. Tlie eysts contain a chot'olate-eolored finid and one or 
more distomes. 

The Distoma laneeolatum produces lesions similar to those pro- 
duced by the Distoma Americanum. The latter parasite is easily 
distinguished from the former by its large size and its distinctive 
shape. 

A liver in which the Distoma have developed and disappeared 
contains cicatrices, or areas of necrotic calcareous material, evi- 
dences of the parasitic invasion. 

Symptoms. — It is difficult to diagnose hepatic distomiasis by the 
clinical symptoms. The history of the case, particularly the source 
of the animal affected, should be given proper consideration. The 
symptoms vaiy according to the intensity of infestation, and do 
not appear for from one to two months after infestation. There 
is more or less icterus, digestive derangement, unthriftiness, and 
emaciation. The disease may teraiinate fatally and it may be quite 
widespread, affecting a large percentage of swine in the Southern 
States, particularly during wet seasons. 

Treatment. — Treatment is of no avail. Invasion may be diminished 
or entirely prevented by keeping swine out of pens, yards, and 
pastures where jirevious infestation has occurred and by properly 
disposing of the excrement of swine that are infested. 

Echi)iococcosi.'^ 

The invasion of the liver of swine witli the larva? of the Ta-nia 
echinococcus is quite common. In the Old World from one per cent 
to seventy per cent of the swine are reported to be so infested. 

The mode of the entrance into the liver is by way of the portal 
system, the embryo passing through the intestine into capillaries that 
empty into radicles of the portal vein. Infestation is derived from 
food or drink contaminated with the feces of dogs that harbor the 
Tfenia echinococcus. 

Lesions. — The liver is enlarged; the degree depending upon the 
number of parasitic cysts it contains. Gerard observed an infested 
swine liver that weighted 110 pounds. The surface of the liver may 
be very irregular due to the presence of the cysts near the capsule 
or just beneath the capsule. The cysts which vary in size from a 
pear to a small hen's ogf;:. are the ])rimary lesions and may be 
polymorphous or muHilocular. The pohnnorphous cysts are sur- 
rounded by a fibrous capsule inside of which the true cystic mem- 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 141 

brane is found and upon which daughter and granddaughter cysts 
and the liead of the future tapeworm may be seen. The cyst contains 
a pale straw-colored, limpid serum. The mutilocular cyst is a mass 
of single cysts developing on the outside of the true cystic mem- 
l)rane instead of developing on the inside, as in the polymorphous 
cyst. The cysts necessarily displace and by pressure destroy liver 
tissue. Old cysts contain a cheesy or caseous substance; in son:e 
instances a purulent substance. 

Symjitoms. — Chemical evidence of the presence of hepatic echin- 
ocoecus cysts are usually wanting. A few cases of ascites associated 
with hepatic echinococcosis have been recorded. There may be icterus 
and some digestive disturbance. 

Treatment. — Because of the location and nature of the lesion, treat- 
ment for echinococcosis is ineifectual. The condition is readily pre- 
vented by treating with teniafuges all valuable dogs that are as- 
sociated in any wav with the swine and by destroying all worthless 
curs and properly disposing of their carcasses. 

Cij^ticercosis 

Hepatic cystieercosis of swine is not very common. It is found 
principally in young pigs, where it is the result of invasion of the 
liver with embryos of the Ttpnia marginata of the dog. These em- 
bryos are obtained in food that has been contaminated with dog 
feces. They gain entrance to the liver by way of the portal vein. 
Some of the embryos pass out of the liver in the hepatic vein; others 
bore through the organ and its capsule into the peritoneal cavity. 

Lesions. — In extensive invasion the liver is enlarged. There may 
be evidence of perihepatitis. A small elevation may occur upon 
the surface and in each elevation a small opening mav be observed. 
The liver is of a variegated color, due to alternating areas of hemor- 
rhage and degeneration. 

Symptoms. — I^nthriftiness, weakness, anorexia, and increased thirst 
may be observed in hepatic cvsticercosis. The affected animals may 
become rapidiv emaciated ; there mav be evid'^nr-e of peritonitis — 
and in exceptional cases tln^ animals may die suddenly, but as a rule 
they linger for several weeks. 

Treatment. — Svmi)toMiatic treatment may be resorted to. but it is 
doubtful if satisfactorv results will be obtained. This condition mav 



142 SWINE PRACTICE 

be prevented by the proper treatment or disposal of dogs as reeom- 
mended under echinococcosis. 

Pancreas 

Little is known concerning the diseases of the pancreas. A con- 
dition known as nniltiple fatty necrosis occurs in swine and is thought 
to be the result of obstruction to the outflow of pancreatic juice. Sar- 
comas involving the pancreas in swine have been observed, but they 
were evidently not primary in that organ. 

Peritoneum 

Defects in the formation of the peritoneum are not common. 
Rarely cystic inclusions or exclusions may be observed. 

INJURIES 

The peritoneum is occasionally injured in swine. The injuries 
may be inflicted during a surgical operation or they may be pro- 
duced accidentally. The result of injury of the peritoneum varies 
with the location and the extent and nature of the injury; which 
may consist of a bruise of the peritoneum, in which case there is a 
local inflammatory disturbance ; a puncture of the peritoneum, re- 
sulting in general peritonitis; or a laceration of the peritoneum, 
permitting eventration. 

The results of violence from the external surface are self-evident, 
but the injuries may be inflicted by foreign bodies in the alimentary 
canal. In such cases there is more or less digestive derangement and 
local or general peritonitis. 

Treatment.— Medicinal treatment may be applicable when the peri- 
toneum is intact, but in lacerations of the peritoneum surgical inter- 
ference alone is of value. 

ASCITES 

Ascites is a condition resulting from the accumulation and re- 
tention of excessive quantities of lymph or diluted lymph in the peri- 
toneal cavity. The peritoneal cavity is in reality a large lymph 
space. 

Ascites is very rare in swine. 

Etiology. — Ascites is caused by an excessive outpouring of lymph 
into or a diminished absorption of lymph from the peritoneal cavity. 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 143 

The lymph escapes from the blood capillaries in the subserosa on 
to the surface of the peritoneum. The usual causes are obstructed 
portal circulation, which may be due to disturbances of the liver, 
valvular defects of the heart, chronic nephritis, or direct pressure 
upon the portal vein. 

Lesions. — Enlarged abdomen, due to the accumulated fluid in the 
peritoneal cavity. The fluid is thin, limpid, and is noncoagulable. 
The lesions of the primary cause may also be observed. 

Symptoms. — A pendulous abdomen associated with digestive dis- 
turbances and malnutrition are the principal evidences of this dis- 
ease. 

Treatment. — Treatment is of little value. Temporary relief may 
be obtained by paracentesis abdominis. 

PERITONITIS 

Inflammation of the peritoneum is not of as common occurrence in 
swine as it is in horses, and the disease is less fatal in swine than it 
is in most other animals. 

Etiology. — The peritoneum of the pigs is very resistant to infection. 
Foreign bodies frequently become imbedded in the peritoneum and 
establish a general inflammatory disturbance. Cesarean section, 
spaying of sows, and the castration of ridgling boars is in some cases 
succeeded by infection and fatal peritonitis. Parturition and par- 
ticularly dystocia cases are prone to develop peritonitis. Septic 
metritis is sometimes associated with peritonitis as a result of ex- 
tension of infection. Occasionally an ascarid may perforate the in- 
testine and produce sufficient irritation to produce inflammation of 
the peritoneum. 

Lesions. — Peritonitis may be serous, fibrinous, hemorrhagic, puru- 
lent, septic, or tubercular; local or general; acute or chronic. The 
lesions will vary according to the type of inflammation. There is 
first tumefaction, congestion, loss of gloss of surface, and exudation. 
The serous exudate is sticky, serum-like, and may be tinged with 
blood; the fibrinous exudate coagulates and causes adhesions; the 
hemorrhagic exudate is of a bloody appearance; and the purulent 
exudate is composed of pus. Septic peritonitis is associated with 
the accumulation of a putrid material upon the peritoneal surface. 
There may also be evidence of injury, or metritis, and probably 
some intestinal content in the peritoneal cavity. Chronic peritonitis 



144 SWINE PRACTICE 

is associated witli tlie proliferation of tlbrous tissue and usually 
greater or less adhesions of the visceral and parietal peritoneum. 

Symptoms. — Acute peritonitis is associated with abdominal pain, 
the severity of which depends upon the extent and intensity of the 
intiammation. The pain may be manifested on palpation of the ab- 
domen. The affected animals have a "tucked up" appearance; the 
appetite is diminished or perhaps wanting. There is a rise of 
temperature and a rapid, wiry pulse. The animals are vmeasy and 
restless and grunt when forced to move. Constipation is present. 
The acute type of peritonitis is usually of short duration, the ani- 
mals in many instances dying within forty-eight hours, especially 
when the condition is the result of an operation. 

Animals affected with chronic peritonitis may show some digestive 
derangement or there may be no evidence of disease. 

Treatment. — liemove the cause, and the further treatment will de- 
pend upon the cause and nature of the lesions. In all cases the bowel 
movement should be diminished or inhibited by the use of opiates. 
Jf the disease is the result of injury, surgical interference and 
the rational application of antiseptics is indicated. If the animals 
eat they should receive only liquid foods easy of digestion. 

TUMORS 

Some cases of peritoneal tumors in swine have been reported. The 
fibroma of swine is usually benign; it may be tabular or peduncu- 
lated. Sarcoma, endothelioma, and carcinoma also have been ob- 
served, the first being the most common. 

The above-mentioned tumors are pathologically identical to the 
same type of tumors observed elsewhere in swine or in other ani- 
mals, and they ]>roduce practically the same results, with the pos- 
sible exception that the malignant tumors are not so fatal as in 
some other animals, particularly in the human. 

PARASITES 

The cystic form of the Tienia echinococcus (echinococcosis) is 
probably the most common parasitic invader of the peritoneum of 
swine. The description of these cysts will be found under the dis- 
cussion of parasites of the liver. 

The Cysticercus tenuicollis is occasionally observed involving the 
peritoneum of swine, although in the central Ignited States these 



DISEASES OE RESPIRATORY (3RGANS 145 

cysts are niucli more coiinuoii in sheep. The eysts eoiitaiii only 
one la])e\v()riu enihi-yo, dilTeriiiii- in this partieular from the eysts of 
the Tii^nia eehinoeoeeus. They liave a donble membrane, the em- 
bryo beino- suspended in a thin, watery tiuid that tills the cyst, which 
may attain the size of an En<>'lish walnut. 

8te])hanurus dentatum, both in the adult and larval stage, may 
be found in relation to the peritoneum. The lesions they produce 
in the peritoneum are tlii^ same as those pr-oduced by this parasite 
elsewhere in the body. 

The Ascaris suum may bore through the intestine and be found in 
the peritoneal eavity. As they pass out of the intestine they carry 
various bacteria with them and possibly also permit the escape of 
some intestinal content which is always teeming with l)acteria. Thus 
infectious, usually septic, peritonitis results. 



CHAPTER III 



DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS 



Anatomical Consideration 

Respiration 
Nose 

Epistaxis 

rCatarrlial 
Rhinitis-^ infectious 
I Bull nose 
Tumors 
Larynx 

T- .,. r Catarrhal 

Laryngitis <; ,, 

I Croupous 

Tumors 
Trachea 

Malformation 

Stenosis 

Tracheitis 

Tumors 
Bronchial Tubes 

Stenosis 

Ti 1 •. • ' Catarrhal 
Bronchitis 



Lung 
Atalectasis 
Emphysema 
Edema 
Hemorrhage 

' Catarrhal 
Croupous 
Pneumonia i Purulent 
Chronic 
L Septic 
Tumors 
Parasitic 
Pleura 

Hydrothorax 

Hemothorax 

Pneumothorax 

Pleurisy -i , 

1 clironic 

Tumors 



ip 



arasitic 



Spasms of Diaphragm 

Anatomical Consideration 

Snout. — The snout is formed by a fusion of the upper lip and the 
structure that corresponds to the nose in other animals. It is short 
and cylindrical. The skin of the snout is thin and quite sensitive. 
The nostrils are open on the flat surface of the snout. They are 
round and rather small and separated by the os rostri which is a 
prolongation of the septum nasi. 

Nasal Cavity. — The nasal cavity varies in different breeds of swine, 
but in general it is long and narrow. It is divided behind a trans- 
verse plate into an upper part that communicates with the meatus 
of the ethmoid and a lower or respiratory portion. The nasolachrimal 
duct is in the posterior portion of the ventral portion of the cavity. 



DISEASES OP EESPIRATORY ORGANS 147 

Larynx. — The larynx is long and has considerable mobility, due 
to the relatively loose attachments of the laryngeal cartilages. The 
vocal cords extend obliquely downward and backward. They are 
close together, and hence the rima glottidis is narrow. Each vocal 
cord has an opening communicating with the laryngeal saccules. 

Trachea and Bronchi. — The trachea extends from the larynx down- 
ward along the inferior portion of the cervical region into the 
thoracic cavity where it bifurcates, forming the bronchial tubes. 
The trachea is six to eight inches in length and contains about 
thirty-five incomplete cartilaginous rings. 

There are two principal bronchial tubes, one being distributed to 
the right and the other to the left lung. A small tube is detached 
and is distributed to the right apical lobe of the lung. The prin- 
cipal bronchus of the right lung supplies branches to the cardiac 
and intermediate lobes and then continues into, and is distributed 
to the diaphragmatic lobe. The left principal bronchus supplies a 
branch that subdivides and is distributed to the apical and cardiac 
lobes and then continues and supplies the diaphragmatic lobe. 

Lungs. — The right lung is usually divided into four lobes : apical, 
cardiac, intermediate, and diaphragmatic. The left lung has two 
distinct lobes and some anatomists describe a third indistinct lobe. 
In the left lung the diaphragmatic lobe is distinct. In the anterior 
portion the apical and cardiac lobes are usually fused. 

The lung lobules are distinct but the interlobular tissue is limited. 

Thyroid gland. — This gland is relatively large and is usually well 
removed from the larynx. The lateral lobes are two inches or more in 
length, are rather irregular and well united. 

Thytnns gland. — This gland is large in the pig, extending from the 
larynx into the thoracic cavity, but it gradually atrophies and is a 
mere rudiment in the adult. 

Pleura. — The pleural sacs comprise a double fold of serous mem- 
brane, the outer or parietal layer being attached to the inner wall of 
the thorax, diaphragm, and is deflected downward from the dorsal 
median line. The inner or visceral portion is reflected over and 
closely attached to the outer surface of the lungs. 

^ Respiration 

By respiration is ordinarily understood the exchange of air in 
the lungs. The purpose of respiration is for the introduction of 



148 ?^\VJNE PKA( TJCE 

oxygen and elimination of various waste products. The organs of 
respiration are the same as those of other mammals. Inspiration 
in swine is shorter than expiration and there is usually about one 
respiratory movement to four h(>art-beats. The total capacity of 
the lung of swine is relatively small in comparison to other animals 
of relative weight. About one-tifth to one-sixth of the total air that 
the lung is capable of retaining is replaced in each respiration. The 
frequency of respiration is increased by exercise or excitement. The 
native lard hog cannot withstand severe exercise, and this is the 
cause of so many heat exhaustions in tiiese animals when they are 
moved on foot from })la('e to place. 

Nose 

The habit of rooting predisposes the snout of swine to various 
kinds of injury regardless of the fact that this organ has been de- 
signed for such purposes. Ringing of swijie produces an injury that 
in some instances is difficult to correct. 

EPISTAXIS 

Nose bleeding is not a disease primarily, but is usually a symptom of 
some other disease or abnormal condition. Epistaxis occurs rather con- 
monly in swine. 

Etiology. — True epistaxis is a result of the escape of blood from 
some of the blood vessels of the nasal chambers or related cavities. 
It is a very common symptom in hog cholera and swine plague, and 
has been observed in cases of anthrax. The condition is sometimes 
associated with ulceration of the Schneiderian membrane regardless 
of the cause of the ulcers. In some instances, it may be due to me- 
chanical injuries of the mucous membrane. 

Lesions. — Except in epistaxis resulting from trauma, the lesions 
of the primary condition are more i)rominent than those associated 
with the hemorrhage. 

lSy))iptoms. — Escape of blood, usually from the nostril, is the prin- 
cipal evidence of epistaxis. The escaping blood may be scarlet red 
or dark red, depending upon whether the blood is escaping from 
an artery or a vein. Epistaxis can be distinguished from pulmonary 
hemorrhage by the fact that the discharged blood from the latter is 
frothy. 

Treatmeni. — Epistaxis is usually not fatal. It is difficult to treat 



DISEASES OF RESPJUATORY ORGANS 149 

in swine because of the small size of the opening of the nostril. 
Hydrogen peroxide may be introduced by means of a syringe, and 
this gives immediate and sometimes permanent relief. A solution 
of adrenalin chlorid gives similar results. 

CATARRHAL RHINITIS 

Catarrhal rhinitis is a common condition in swine. It occurs in 
pigs and mature swine. It is probably more prevalent in the breeds 
of swine that have dished faces. This, like other intlammatory 
disturbances of the respiratory tract, is more common in early spring 
and late fall than in summer or winter. Catarrhal rhinitis may be 
acute or chronic. 

Etiology. — Catarrhal rhinitis in swane is usually caused primari- 
ly by some non-infectious irritant, although in the later stages micro- 
bian agents may, and frequently do become of first importance. 
Swine that are permitted to sleep in straw piles or manure heaps 
during cold M^eather are very prone to rhinitis because they become 
heated and when they come out in the morning they chill. Ammonia 
fumes may prevail in manure heaps in sufficient quantities to be 
irritating when inhaled. Dust when inhaled produces an intiam- 
mation of the Schneiderian membrane. In general, catarrhal 
rhinitis is caused by inhalation of irritating substances, such as dust, 
ammonia or other chemicals and by sudden temperature changes. 
This condition is frequently found associated with other diseases, 
particularly swine plague and hog cholera. 

Lesions. — Acute catarrhal intlammation of the nasal mucosa is 
characterized by congestion and tumefaction of the mucous mem- 
brane. This membrane is at first dry, but later varying quanti- 
ties of serous fluid and mucus escape upon the surface of the 
mucosa and are discharged, some of the discharge accumulating 
upon the external surface of the nostril. The exudate may become 
infected and invaded by leukocytes, the discharge thus becoming 
mucopurulent or purulent. Chronic catarrhal inflammation may 
produce a hypertrophy or atrophy of the nasal mucosa. The hy- 
pertrophic change is due to the production of large quantities of 
fibrous tissue in the submucosa. The mucosa thus becomes thick- 
ened, dense, and leathery. The increased volume of the mucous 
membrane may so diminish the cavities of the nose that breathing 
is difficult. In other instances the mucous membrane atrophies, 



150 8WINE PRACTICE 

the nasal cavity thus becoming larger. It is not unusual to find 
desiccated discharge adhering to the mucosa. In either the hyper- 
trophic or atrophic forms of chronic catarrhal rhinitis there may 
be ulceration of the mucous membrane. When such ulcers occur 
they usually involve only the mucous membrane. 

Symptoms. — Sneezing frequently repeated is usually the first 
symptom evidenced in catarrhal rhinitis. Within a few hours after 
the onset the affected animal appears dull or sluggish and there 
is a discharge from the nose of a serous, mucous, seronuicous, 
purulent or mucopurulent substance, the character of the discharge 
depending upon the stage of the disease. There may be some rise 
of temperature and if there is much swelling of the nasal mucous 
membranes, breathing will be labored. Congestion of the conjunc- 
tival mucosa is frequently an associated condition. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause and if the condition has not per- 
sisted until it has become chronic there will be a speedy recovery. 
Dusty pens should be sprinkled, old straw piles burned and manure 
heaps removed. The swine should be provided with clean pens or 
preferably pastures, when the weather will permit. Hog houses 
should be properly ventilated. Slop feeds are preferable. Dusty 
feeds should be eliminated. 

Medicinal treatment is not easily applicable for the relief of porcine 
catarrhal rhinitis. General digestive tonics may be of some value. 
Animals affected with advanced stages of the chronic form of this 
disease had best be put into a marketable condition, if possible, and 
sold for slaughter. 

INFECTIOUS NASAL CATARRH (MALIGNANT CATARRH ) 

An infectious nasal catarrh of swine occurs enzootically in some 
foreign countries and a similar clinical affection occurs in some 
sections of the United States. This disease is usually confined to 
pigs less than six months of age. 

Etiology. — In 1906, the Bacillus pyocyaneus was identified by 
Koske as the causative factor, although the infectious nature of the 
disease was recognized as early as 1890. The Bacillus pyocyaneus 
is found in manure heaps and mulched soils; it gains entrance to 
the nose while the swine are rooting and is readily transmitted from 
a diseased to a healthy animal by means of the nasal discharges. 

Lesions. — This disease is characterized by an intense inflammation 



DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS 151 

which causes a marked cougestion of the mucosa and not infrequent- 
ly a hemorrhagic inflammation. The lesions extend and involve 
the sinuses and the ethmoidal cells, and there may be involvement 
of the optic and olfactory nerves, of the cerebral meninges, and 
of the brain itself. The usual lesions in the last-mentioned struc- 
tures consist of hemorrhages beneath the sheath of the optic and 
olfactory nerves, congestion of the meninges, and edema of the 
cerebral tissue proper. Various changes may be observed in other 
internal organs as a result of high temperature and possibly also 
of metastasis of the infecting agent. 

Syni'ptoms. — High temperature and inappetence are usually the 
first symptoms of the disease. Sneezing, and vigorous rooting or 
rubbing the nose, are followed by epistaxis, edema of the snout, and 
difficult breathing. The altected animals may be blind in one or 
both eyes, and if there is meningeal involvement the pigs will evi- 
dence extreme excitement and finally die in a comatose state. The 
disease may result fatally in a very short time, its course in the 
most fatal epizootics being from three to six days. A chronic or less 
fatal form has been observed in which the course of the disease 
varies from one week to several weeks, and some of the animals 
may recover. 

Treatmejit. — In the acute form of infectious nasal catarrh treat- 
ment has not been successful. From the experience of those veterin- 
arians where this disease prevails it seems best to recommend de- 
struction of all affected animals. An antitoxin may be prepared 
and used to offset the injurious influences of the toxic substances 
produced and eliminated by the Bacillus pyocyaneus. Prophylac- 
tic sanitary measures should be instituted and rigidly enforced on 
premises where this disease abounds. 

TUMORS 

Various tumors have been observed in the nasal cavity of swine 
or involving some related structure. Almost all of these tumors have 
been of the benign type and therefore interfere only mechanically. 
Pedunculated fibromas are not so common in swine as in some other 
animals. 

Larynx 

CATARRHAL LARYNGITIS 

Inflammatory disturbances of the larynx are relatively common in 
swine but are not of sufficient gravity to warrant a lengthy discussion. 



152 8WINE PRACTICE 

Etiology. — Undue exposure and inhalation of suspended or 
gaseous irritants are common causes of laryngitis. In swine, as in 
other animals, lar,yngitis is rarely a distinct process but is a con- 
dition associated with inHammatory disturbances of the pharynx, 
or trachea, and therefore the inflammatory process of the larynx is 
frequently an extension from an adjacent structure. Chronic laryn- 
gitis results from the same causative factors as the acute type, be- 
ing merely extended over a longer period. 

Lesions. — Laryngitis in swine is generally of a catarrhal type and 
may be either acute or chronic, although an occasional case of 
croupous laryngitis occurs. The lesions observed are practically 
identical with the usual lesions of this type of inflammation. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptom of laryngitis is a cough, 
which is at first dry, later moist, and always painful. The cough 
may become convulsive. In the intense acute attacks there will 
be rise of temperature and jirobably inappetence. By palpation 
the laryngeal region will be found supersensitive. 

Treatment. — Provide sanitary surroundings and if the patient is 
inclined to eat, give sparingly of easily digested slops. Medicinal 
treatment is so difficult to apply that frecpiently more harm than 
good is the result. 

CROUPOUS LARYNGITIS AND TRACHEITIS 

Croupous inflammation of tlie mucosa of the larynx and trachea 
is relatively common. It is most common in swine fed in self-feeders. 

Etiology. — The specific cause of croupous inflammation of the 
membranes of the larynx and trachea have not been identified. The 
primary cause of this condition is probably mechanical injury from 
the awns or beards of barley or other grains. Such foreign sub- 
stances are obtained by swine from ground barley in which quanti- 
ties of awns have been left because of threshing while damp or wet. 
Eating from self-feeders appears to favor inhalation of dust, beards, 
etc. 

Lesions. — The ])rincipal lesion consists of a croupous exudate wliicli 
is a tough grayish membrane, usually found in the upper portion of 
the trachea and the larynx. This membrane is so extensive in some 
cases that it practically fills the lumen of the trachea and larynx. 
This membrane may become detached and lodge in the larynx, cans- 



DISEASES OF RESl'IKATOKV ORGANS 153 

iiig' deatli from sutfoeation, or it may pass down the trachea aiul 
occlude the bronchial tubes. 

Sy))ipto))is. — The first symptoms manifested are sneezing', cough- 
ing- and dyspnea. As the disease progresses tlie cough becomes very 
hoarse and croupy. If the condition is not intensive the symptoms 
continue and the animals become unthrifty and emaciated. In those 
cases in which the croupous membrane becomes detached and lodges 
in the larynx, there will be extreme dyspnea and frequently deatli 
by suffocation. 

Treaiment. — Prevention is far l)etter than treatment; in fact, there 
is little tliat can be done to relieve an affected animal. Ground barley 
or other grains in which there are quantities of awns should not be 
used for feed. 

TUMORS 

Laryngeal tumors are rare. However, pedunculated fibromas liave 
been observed, and epithelioma has been reported. 

Trachea 

MALFORAIATIONS 

A case occurs occasionally in which tlie esophagus forms a union 
with the trachea. Pigs so affected usually die soon after farrowing. 

STENOSIS 

Congenital tracheal stenosis may occur in swine, but is relatively 
rare. Acquired stenosis is also rare, because of the protection of the 
trachea from external injuries. 

TRACHEITIS 

This intlammatory disturbance is usually associated with laryn- 
gitis or bronchitis, and partakes so closely of the nature of these lat- 
ter affections that further description will not be given. 

TUMORS 

Traclieal tumors are iiot common in swine, tliough tibromas and 
myxomas of tlie benign tumors luive been observed. 

Bronchial Tubes 

The prineii)al malformations of the bronchial tubes consist of an 
irrcgularitv in the distribution of the branches of those tubes, but 



154 SWINE PRACTICE 

as a rule this produces little or no inconvenience to the animal and 
is therefore of scientific interest only. 

STENOSIS 

Bronchial stenosis is rarely common in swine. The condition may 
affect either the large or small tubes. Bronchial stenosis is probably 
most frequently the result of a diseased condition of the bronchial 
mucosa, such as catarrhal inflammation, ulceration, tuberculosis, para- 
sitic invasion, or mechanical injury due to some foreign body, as a 
needle or a nail. 

CATARRHAL BRONCHITIS 

The principal inflammatory disturbance of the bronchial tubes is 
of a catarrhal nature, at least in the beginning. Catarrhal bron- 
chitis may be either acute or chronic. 

Etiology. — Undue exposure to inclement weather is one of the 
principal causes of bronchitis. Inhalation of dust-laden air is also 
an important causative factor of inflammation of the bronchial tubes. 
Infection is in many instances an auxiliary of other causes and 
streptococci bacillus pj^ocyaneus are many times the primary causes 
of bronchial catarrh. This condition may be associated with other 
diseases, such as swine plague or hog cholera. 

Chronic bronchial catarrh results from the action of the same 
causative factors that produce acute catarrh, but the irritants are 
usually less intense and act for a longer time. 

Lesions. — There is congestion of the affected mucosa, which later 
becomes covered with mucous or with a mucopurulent discharge. 
In extreme cases the discharge may be tinged with blood and become 
purulent. When the disease process involves the capillary bronchial 
tubes there is usually more or less emphysema, due to obstruction 
of the tubes with exudate which prevents the escape of air from the 
air cells. There may be areas of atelectasis which project beyond 
the surface of the lung and are of a darker color than the lung. 

Chronic bronchial catarrh is characterized by the presence of 
mucous, purulent, or even caseous material in the bronchial tubes, 
and by fibrous proliferation in the submucosa which may result in 
an attenuation of the mucosa. Dilatation or bronchiectasis is a com- 
mon lesion, particularly in the dependent parts of the lung, in chronic 
catarrhal bronchitis. In long-standing cases there may be peribron- 



DISEASES OP RESPIRATORY ORGANS 



155 



chitis, evidenced by fibrous proliferation around the bronchial tubes, 
which may extend into the pulmonary tissue. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptom of bronchitis is a cough which 
in the beginning is dry but later becomes moist. The cough may 
become convulsive. As the disease progresses a nasal discharge be- 
comes evident, which is at first of the nature of mucus but later 
becomes mucopurulent or purulent. Rales may be detected in thin 
swine, or possibly in any of the bacon breeds, but the chest wall of 
other swine is usually so thick that it practically prohibits the recog- 
nition of pulmonary conditions. There is usually some rise of tem- 
perature in the beginning, but this may subside. The appetite may 
be diminished. 

Treatment. — Removing the cause and providing sanitary surround- 




I^ung worms 
in a bronchial 
tube 



Fig. 29. Bronchial tube of hog with lung worms. (Ostertag.) 



ings will probably do more than medication to relieve this condition. 
Supply easily digested foods. If the swine can be controlled easily 
and placed in a piggery that can be made practically airtight, the 
animals may be successfully treated with medicated vapors, using 
such agents as oil of eucalyptus. 



156 SWJNL: PKAfTlCE 

BRONCHIAL AND I'UL.MONAKV STRCNGVLOSIS 

Pulmonary strongylosis and bronchitis are very common in swine 
in the United States; however, the infestation is only rarely of 
sufficient extent to produce serious damage. The lungs from a thou- 
sand swine were inspected in a Kansas City abattoir and sixty per 
cent of them contained pulmonary Strongyli in such numbers that 
the lesions could readily be ol)served by gross examination. 

Etiology. — ]\Ietastrongylus apri is the causative parasite of por- 
cine pulmonary strongylosis. It is a white or brownish-white threacl- 
like worm from one inch to one and a half inches in length. The 
adults inhal)it the middle-sized and small bronchioles, usually in the 
posterior superior part of the lung, although they may be found 
elsewhere in the lung. The ova are carried out from the lung in 
the discharge and may pass out directly or pass into the pharynx 
and be eliminated in the feces. The exact life cycle is not known, 
but it is probable that the ova hatch and undergo several moults 
before regaining the animal body. The parasites gain entrance 
to the animal body in the food or water, infestation of swine being 
accomplished. Young pigs are most susceptible ; however, the para- 
sites have been identified in swine of all ages. After the parasites 
gain entrance to the animal body they begin to migrate, some of 
them ultimately reaching the bronchial tubes. The exact route of 
migration is still a disputed (luestion. but they pass either by way 
of the pharynx through the larynx to the bronchial tubes, by way of 
the blood stream, or directly through the tissues. 

Lesions. — The principal lesions in swine are found in the posterior 
lobes and in the superior part of those lobes. At first the lesions are 
confined to centers, or foci, which are coneshaped and usually atelec- 
tatic, though they may protrude and be of a doughy consistency. 
In a later stage these foci are found to contain mucopurulent, puru- 
lent, or even caseous substances in varying quantities in addition 
to from one to many Strongyli and their ova. Similar discharges 
will be found in the bronchial tubes and even in the trachea, and 
occasionally disintegrated vermes and their ova will be found in 
the expectorate. There may be bronchiectasis, but this condition is 
not common. , The visceral pleura may show evidence of chronic 
inflammation. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation varies from four to eiyht 
weeks. Although this condition is very prevalent, the infestation 



DISEASES OP RESPIRATORY ORGANS 157 

is usually limited and fatalities from this disease are exceptional. 
The primary symptom is a cough, which usually involves several 
animals at once and becomes more frequent as the disease progresses. 
In fatal or severe cases the cougli is paroxysmal, the animals some- 
times falling to the ground from exhaustion and lack of air. A sticky, 
adhesive discharge prevails and accumulates upon the nostrils, respira- 
tion becomes difficult, and a distinct wheezing sound can be heard. 
The temperature may be increased from one to three degrees Fahren- 
heit. Emaciation is rapid. Edema of the dependent parts occurs, 
and the animals become weak and finally die of exhaustion. The 
course of the disease varies from one to three or four months. The 
diagnosis should be based upon the history of the outbreak, the 
number of animals involved, the character of the cough, and finally 
upon the detection of ova and parasites in the discharges and the 
presence of parasites in the lungs on autopsy. 

Treatment. — This disease is difficult to treat because of the loca- 
tion of the parasites and the difficulty of controlling swine. The 
only rational method consists of the intratracheal injection of some 
agent that will destroy the parasites, or of the inhalation of medi- 
cated vapors. These methods are not easily adapted to the treat- 
ment of swine, particularly the intratracheal injections. Medicated 
vapors may be used, providing the swine can be confined in an air- 
tight room. 

Further infestation should be prevented by the proper disposal of 
the various excretions from the infested animals. The pens should 
be thoroughly cleaned and some efficient parasiticide applied. If the 
infestation is in pasture land, it will be necessary to change pasture, 
keeping all swine away from the known infested pasture for at least 
a year, and for two years if possible. 

The exact procedure of medicating by inhalation will depend upon 
the available facilities. The medicaments available are phenol, creo- 
sote, various coal tar derivatives, turpentine, oil of eucalyptus, etc. 
Hogs may be medicated by vapors during the winter months by 
first removing all litter from the hog house or box stall in the horse 
or cattle barn, bedding six or eight inches deep with clean hay or 
straw\ The medicament is then added to a sufficient quantity of 
hot water (six or eight gallons), and the mixture then sprayed over 
the fresh bedding and the hogs driven in at once, and they will 
inhale a sufficient quantity of the vapors to be of considerable bene- 



158 SWINE PRACTICE 

fit. This method of medication may be accomplished by providing 
an oil stove and the medicament vaporized and conducted through 
a flue into the closed hog house containing the swine. 

Lungs 

ATELECTASIS 

This is a condition of collapse of the lung; the absence of air in 
the lung, and may be either congenital or acquired. The lung of 
the fetus is ahvays atelectatic before ])irth. Tliis is one means of 
determining a still birth, and is often useful as evidence in legal 
cases. Partial congenital atelectasis may be the result of obstruc- 
tion of a bronchus with meconium or mucus; it may also be the 
result of excessive extrathoracic pressure. Acquired atelectasis may 
be due to compression of the lung by inflammatory exudate (pleuritic 
effusions), edematous transudate, or forward displacement of the 
diaphragm. It may also be due to obstruction of the bronchus, the 
air contained in the air cells being absorbed, permitting them 
to collapse. This condition may occur in rickets and in pig scour. 

Lesions. — The affected lung tissue collapses and does not crepitate. 
It is red or reddish-brown in color, feels dry, is tough, and sinks in 
water. If the condition is of long standing, the affected area be- 
comes darker in color and is designated cornification. In some in- 
stances the atelectatic areas become spleen-like, due to the develop- 
ment of fibrous tissues, and this is termed splenization. 

Atelectasis diminishes the breathing capacity^ which is the only 
symptom characterizing the condition. Small areas of the lung will 
not produce visible symptoms. This condition is usually associated 
with other disease processes, the symptoms of which mask those of 
atelectasis. 

Atelectasis occurs in the lung of swine as a result of swine plague, 
hog cholera, bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy, as well as of other 
less important diseases. 

EMPHYSEMA 

Pulmonary emphysema has been observed in swine but is not of 
common occurrence. It is due to conditions that favor the inflation 
of the lung with excessive quantities of air. Bronchopneumonia is 
occasionally associated with emphysema. The affected areas are soft, 
spongy, anemic, and project beyond the surface of the lung. 



DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS 159 

EDEMA 

Pulmonary edema is not common in swine kept under ordinary 
conditions, but it is often found in those that are hyperimmunized 
for the production of anti-hog-cholera serum. Those having experi- 
ence as serum producers occasionally have a swine die of pulmonary 
edema at the time or immediately after the intravenous injection of 
quantities of virulent blood. 

In comparison to their size, swine have a relatively small lung. 
The virulent blood that is used in hyperimmunizing is defibrinated 
but contains both the red and white blood cells, some of which are 
disintegrated. Large quantities of this defibrinated blood, contain- 
ing corpuscles in various stages of disintegration as well as the virus, 
are introduced into an ear vein. The first capillary system it would 
pass through is in the lung where, no doubt, more or less obstruction 
of capillaries is effected and the virus, or some chemical ingredient 
of the blood, may cause an increased permeability of the blood ves- 
sels and facilitate the outpouring of the serum. 

Lesion. — The lungs are engorged with blood. The air cells con- 
tain varying quantities of serum, the lung thus becoming soggy and 
edematous. No other lesion of any significance is found. 

Symptoms. — The affected animal at first becomes restless and un- 
easy. There is increased respiration, soon followed by dyspnea, 
cessation of breathing, and death. In some cases all these symptoms 
occur within a few minutes and during the time that the virus is 
being introduced. If the injection is stopped instantly when the first 
symptom becomes evident some of the affected swine will recover, 
but in some of them the various symptoms occur, succeeded by death, 
even though the introduction of virus be stopped when the first 
symptom appears. An occasional case occurs where the swine will 
show no discomfiture at the time of the injection of the virus, but 
may be found in distress from a few minutes to an hour later. In 
such cases, death will usually result. 

Treatment. — Thus far no treatment has been found that appears 
to be of value. It is possible that centrifuging the virus will over- 
come the difficulty. 

■ ' HEMORRHAGE 

Pulmonary hemorrhage is not common in swine as a primary dis- 
ease. It has been reported as occurring in fattened swine that are 



160 



SWINE PRACTICE 



driven to market, espeeially when they become very hot. It is rather 
common as a secondary condition in acnte cases of pneumonia, swine 
plague, and liog cholera. 

Cause. — Engorgement of the lung capillaries, due to overexertion, 
excessive heat, or disease, is the chief cause of hemorrhage. Weak- 
ening of the vessel walls due to malnutrition, which occurs in some 
infective diseases, is another cause. 

Diseased lobes of lungs 




Fig; 



;;0. Hog lungs with inflammation of anterior lobes as a result of 
chronic s'.vine plague. (Ostertag. ) 



Lesions.— Almost all cases of hemorrhage of the air passages pos- 
terior to the larynx are designated hemoptysis, or pulmonary hemor- 
rhage, and it is difficult in some instances to differentiate tracheal 
or bronchial hemorrhage from pulmonary hemorrhage. If the hemor- 
rhage is primary the escaped and escaping blood is practically all 
that will be observed. The blood that escapes from the lung or 
smaller bronchial tubes will contain more entangled air, that is. be 



1>ISEASE8 OF KESPIKATOUV ORGANS 1(31 

more frothy than that (.'umiiig from the large bronchi aud the traehea. 
Ill secoiiclary pulmonary hediorrhage tlie lesions of the primary dis- 
ease will also be evident. 

Syiiipfonis. — If tile extravasate is limited in quantity it may be 
absorl)ed and no visible symptoms become evident. Escape of frothy 
blood from the iiose antl moutli characterizes hemoptysis. In cases 
where there are large quantities of blood escaping there will be 
more or less bronchial obstruction and consequently difficult breath- 
ing, and the animal may become weak from loss of blood. The 
condition may terminate fatally or the affected animal, in those cases 
where the hemorrhage is limited, may recover. 

Treatment. — Keep the affected animals cool, and where they will 
be least excited. 

PNEUMONIA 

Inriammation of the lung is not of common occurrence in swine 
as a primaiy condition bnt it is frequently associated with some 
other disease. | j sg! -i 

Practically all types of pneumonia based upon pathologic classi- 
fication occur in swine. The following types will be described : 
catarrhal, croupous, purulent, and gangrenous. 

Catarrh <il Pneumonia 

Catarrhal pneumonia is a lobular involvement characterized by 
occlusion of tlie air cells, with exudate and desquamated epithelium. 

Etiology. — Catarrhal pneumonia is practically always a sequel of 
bronchitis and is therefore produced by the same causative factors. 
Bacillus pyocyaneus may cause catarrhal pneumonia. Catarrhal pneu- 
monia is one of the characteristic lesions of swine plague due to the 
Bacterium suisepticus. (Description will be found in Chapter VIII.) 
Bronchopneumonia is occasionally secondary to other diseases, such 
as hog cholera or septicemia. 

Lesions. — The inflammatory process is confined to a lobule or a 
group of lobules. As the disease progresses, other adjacent lobules 
may become involved, the affected areas thus becoming confluent 
and larger. In the beginning the affected areas are hyperemic. The 
alveoli soon become filled with inflammatory exudate which is at 
first fluid but later coagulates and becomes dry, the diseased lobules 
thus becoming solid. These areas are first red in color, but early 
become brown, gray, then yellow or yellowish-white, and if the eon- 



162 



SWINE PRACTICE 



dition persists abscess formation may occur. Bronchitis is usually 
associated with bronchopneumonia and in such cases the lesions 
characterizing bronchitis would also be present. 

Symptoms. — Catarrhal pneumonia in swine is extremely difficult 
to differentiate from bronchitis because of the inability to efficiently 
auscultate or percuss the thorax. Catarrhal pneumonia offers the 
same general symptoms that have been noted in bronchitis, except 
that pneumonic symptoms are usually more intensive than those of 
bronchitis. Catarrhal pneumonia has no definite course, the length 
or duration of the disease depending upon the cause, extent of the 




Fig. 31. CATARRHAL PNEUMONIA. A. mucous collection in alveolus; B, 
alveolar wall; C, desquamated epithelial cells; D, fibrous tissue forma- 
tion. 



disease, and the resistance of the affected animal. The disease is most 
fatal in young swine. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment other than inhalation of medi- 
cated vapors is of little or no value. Proper sanitary conditions 
should be provided, and the affected animals should be given easily 
digested, wholesome food in sufficient quantities to build up the body 
and maintain strength. If the causative factor is an infection, isola- 
tion and proper quarantine regulations should be enforced. 

Croupous Pneumonia 

Croupous pneumonia is a disease involving lobes or large lung 
areas and is characterized by the presence of a hemorrhagic exudate 
in the air cells. It is not a common primary condition in swine, but 
is frequently associated with hog cholera. 



DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS 163 

Etiology. — Many predisposing factors enter into the causation of 
this tlisease, such as undue exposure or inhalation of irritating gases, 
but it is probable that the specitic active cause is microbian. 

Lesions. — Croupous pneumonia is characterized by tiie regularity 
of the successive changes that occur in the affected portion of the 
lung. The disease usually involves the dependent part of the lung 
and is essentially lobar, but more or less than this amount of lung- 
may be involved. The various stages that occur in the lung are as 
follows : congestion, red hepatization, gray hepatization, and resolu- 
tion. These stages occur in the order mentioned, and there is no 
distinct line of demarcation between each succeeding stage. The 
length of duration of each stage is subject to variation, but on the 
whole is quite constant. The congestive stage is of about twenty-four 
hours' duration. During this stage the affected portion of the lung 
is engorged with blood. In the beginning the air cells contain air 
but as the disease progresses the alveolar capillaries begin to leak 
or there is a hemorrhagic exudate into the alveoli. Red hepatization 
begins when exudation is evident, and this stage persists for from 
three to live days; the area affected is red, dense, heavy, and liver- 
like. Gray hepatization is characterized by a gray or yellow colora- 
tion of the affected lung. This stage succeeds red hepatization and 
is due in part to the substitution of leukocytes for the coagulated 
hemorrhagic exudate that characterizes red hepatization and in part 
to chemical change of the hemoglobin of the extravasated red blood 
cells in the hemorrhagic exudate. The lung tissue affected with gray 
hepatization is gray in color, dense, heavy, and cuts like liver tissue. 
Gray hepatization persists for from three to five days, and when the 
alveoli are relatively free of exudate and leukocytes the lung is said to 
be in a stage of resolution, which includes that period of time during 
which the air cells are freed of all inflammatory products and return 
to the normal condition. This is a variable period and depends upon 
the resistance of the affected animals. The lung, during this stage, 
contains some inflammatory products in the beginning and later 
small quantities of mucus and debris, but in the flnal stages the 
lung is practically normal. 

Symptoms. — Inappetence, high temperature, and increased respira- 
tion and heart action characterize croupous pneumonia. On the 
second or third day a "prune-juice" nasal discharge may be observed 



164 SWJME PRAC^ICfi 

which later becomes mucous or mucopurulent. The affected swine 
are dull, listless, and will probably cough more or less when agitated. 
Treatment. — Sanitary surroundings, good water to drink, and an 
abundance of fresh air without drafts are prerequisities in the treat- 
ment of pneumonia. Laxatives should be given to prevent constipa- 
tion. Heart stimulants may be required, but should not be admin- 
istered except when necessary, as indicated by a rapid, weak pulse. 

Purulent Fneuinonia 

Purulent pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung characterized 
by the formation of pus. This condition is relatively common in 
young pigs, although it may occur in swine of any age. 

Etiology. — Purulent pneumonia is of bacterial origin. The pyo- 
genic Micrococci, Bacillus pyocyaneus, and tubercle bacillus are the 
most frequent causative factors of this condition. These organisms 
may be inhaled direct but they are more frequently introduced- 
into the lung from elsewhere as emboli. Purulent pneumonia in 
old swine is therefore frequently associated with pyemia, abscess 
formation, or purulent metritis. Several cases have been observed 
in the carcasses of swine that had previously been hyperimmunized 
intramuscularly for the production of anti-hog-cholera serum. 

Lesions. — The principal lesion is suppuration, the centers of which 
vary in size and number but in the beginning are relatively small 
and in the earlier stages are not encapsulated but are surrounded 
by a zone of lung tissue intensely infiltrated with cells. As the 
condition progresses a circumscribing capsule is formed and the 
pus becomes thicker, and if the capsule is not destroyed the con- 
tained pus becomes caseous and may later become calcified. Should 
the capsule of a suppurative center become eroded the contained 
pus may infiltrate the adjacent lung tissue or discharge into a 
bronchial tube, the original suppurative center thus becoming a 
cavity. The pleura covering superficial suppurative centers usually 
shows some involvement. 

Symptoms. — The evidence of purulent pneumonia varies accord- 
ing to the nature and extent of the lesions. The presence of a single 
abscess may not cause any noticeable symptoms. General embolic 
purulent pneumonia is characterized by intense symptoms consisting 
of chills, fever, difificult and hurried breathing, uneasiness, and gen- 
eral distress. The discharge of pus witliin the lung tissue is evi- 



DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS 165 

denced by rise of temperature aud the associated cardiac and respira- 
tory disturbances. 

Treatment. — No special line of treatment is of value. The animals 
should be placed in good quarters and cared for properly. 

An infectious pneumonia of swine caused by streptococci has been 
observed in a few instances. The source of infection and the avenue 
of entrance has not been determined. The infection appears to be 
readil}^ transmissible from animal to animal. 

The lesions are pulmonary hepatization wdth a marked interstitial 
exudation and usually a purulent pleurisy. The symptoms consist 
primarily of respiratory disturbance and a rise of temperature. 

All medicinal treatment that has been attempted has been of no 
value. It is probable that an autogenous bacterin would be useful, 
particularly as a preventive agent. Quarantine and the rigid enforce- 
ment of sanitary regulations have been found serviceable in check- 
ing the spread of the disease. 

Septic or Gangrenous Pneumonia 

Septic pneumonia is relatively common in swine. It has occurred 
enzootically in swine affected primarily with forage poisoning asso- 
ciated with pharyngeal paralysis. Sometimes it is a sequel to croupous 
pneumonia. 

Etiology. — The usual cause of septic pneumonia is the introduc- 
tion of foreign substances into the lung. In cases of pharyngeal 
paralysis food escapes into the air tube. Drenching is another means 
by which foreign substances are frequently introduced into the lung. 
Thrombic obstruction of vessels supplying an area affected with 
croupous pneumonia favors the action of saprophytic bacteria, and 
hence putrefaction and the production of septic pneumonia. Ab- 
scesses sometimes become infected with putrefying organisms and 
produce septic pneumonia. The Bacillus necrophorus is active in 
the production of necrosis and putrefaction in the lung. 

Lesions. — Necrotic centers are most frequently found in the de- 
pendent and anterior part of the lung. The foci vary in size from 
that of a pea to a baseball, and may be few or many. They appear 
dirty brown, red, or dirty white in color. When incised they are 
found to be soft, the content being semifluid in the early stages but 
later of a cheesy consistency. The surrounding lung tissue will be 
inflamed. In the beginning, an infiltration circumscribes the lesions, 



]66 SWINE PRACTICE 

but in the older lesions there may be a distinct capsule. Superficial 
necrotic foci may be associated with pleurisy. 

Symptoms. — The first symptom evidencing- septic pneumonia is 
the foul-smelling exhaled air. This symptom does not occur in all 
cases, as the escape of putrid odors is dependent upon the erosion 
and discharge into the bronchial tubes of necrotic putrid material. 
Rise of temperature accompanies practically all cases of septic pneu- 
monia. The fever may be irregvilar and intermittent, the thermal 
disturbance depending upon absorption of septic products. In those 
cases of croupous pneumonia in which septic pneumonia is a sequel, 
the general symptoms will be the same, plus the offensive breath, as 
those observed in a case of croupous pneumonia. A microscopic 
examination of the nasal discharge will reveal the presence of shreds 
of disintegrated lung tissue in cases of septic pneumonia, which fact 
is of diagnostic value. The course of septic pneumonia is uncer- 
tain. The attack may terminate fatally in two or three days after 
the onset of the disease or, if the septic lesions are limited in extent, 
they may become encapsulated and the animal recover, the length 
of time required varying from a few weeks to as many months. 

Treatment. — Remedial agents are of little, or no value so far as 
the septic process is concerned. The treatment of symptoms as they 
develop will be of some value. The animal should be given good 
care and sanitary surroundings proA'ided. 

Interstitial or Chronic Pneumonia 

Interstitial pneumonia is a chronic condition characterized by pro- 
liferation of fibrous tissues. This condition is usually a sequel to 
chronic catarrhal bronchitis and chronic bronchopneumonia. It is 
observed in swine in those sections of the country where it is con- 
tinuously dusty and in swine kept in quarters where slightly irri- 
tating gases prevail. 

Etiology. — Constant inhalation of mild irritants, such as dust or 
chemical fumes. 

Lesions. — Fibrous proliferation characterizes this disease. The 
fibrous tissue forms around the bronchioles, the process gradually 
extending and involving the alveoli. The bronchioles and alveoli 
also show evidence of catarrh. The affected lung is dense, and when 
cut offers more resistance than the normal lung. The degree of 
fibrous proliferation is quite variable in some instances; there is a 



DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS 



167 



limited amount, and in other cases the normal lung tissue is dis- 
placed by fibrous tissue. Encapsulated suppurative or necrotic cen- 
ters may be found. 

Symptoms. — A persistent cough, associated witl^ a limited but 
variable nasal discharge of a mucopurulent material, characterizes 
chronic pneumonia. The animals are usually unthrifty and 
emaciated. 



Section of 
bronchial tube 
showing 
lung worms ( 




Pearly spot 
caused by 
infestation 
with lung 



Fig. 



Lung of hog with lung worms. (Ostertag.) 



Treatment. — The cause should be removed and the animals properly 
housed and fed. Other than this, little can be done. 



TUMORS 

Various tumors have been encountered in the lungs of swine, but 
principally in autopsies or at abattoirs. Lung tumors of swine are 
similar to the same type of tumors of other tissues. Pulmonary 
nepo'lasms produce no typical symptoms by which they may be recog- 
nized clinicallv. 



168 SWINE PRACTICE 

PARASITES 

The principal pulmonary parasite is the Metastrongylus apri, which 
has been described under bronchial disorders and ascaridiasis. 

Echinococcosis pulmonum is a common disease of swine. This 
condition is caused by the larval form of Taenia echinococcus. The 
cysts of pulmonary echinococcus are the same as those occurring in 
the liver. 

Distomiasis, or invasion of the lung with flukes or Distoma, occurs 
but is not common in swine. 

Pulmonary stephanurosis has also been observed, but is rare. 

Parasitic nodules, the supposed results of invasion of some unknown 
parasite, are occasionally noted by veterinary inspectors, but there 
is little significance in such invasion as the lung is not edible, accord- 
ing to the meat-inspection regulations in the United States. 

Pleura 

Disease conditions of the pleura of swine are rarely recognized 
clinically, though some cases of pleuro-pneumonia may be determined 
by a clinical examination. Pathologic conditions of the pleura are 
occasionally observed by veterinary' inspectors in the carcasses of 
swine that are slaughtered. 

HYDROTHORAX 

Hydrothorax is a condition resulting from the accumulation in 
the thoracic cavity of excessive quantities of serous fluid. It is of 
rather rare occurrence in swine. 

Etiology. — Obstructed outflow of blood from the vena cava, with 
engorgement, is the principal cause of hydrothorax. Chronic dis- 
ease of the cardiac valves and chronic pneumonia are the most 
common causes of obstruction of the outflow of venous blood from 
the vena cava. Tumors, abscesses, and malformed thorax may also 
be responsible for the causation of pneumo-thorax. 

Lesions. — Accumulation of varying quantities of a pale yellow 
fluid in the thorax is the characteristic lesion, and in addition the 
primary lesions in the heart or lung are usually evident. The 
accumulated fluid will compress the lung. 

Symptoms. — It is not possible in the beginning to detect any 
particular symptoms. Those produced by the accumulated fluid are 
frequently so overshadowed by the primary condition that it is not 



biSEASES OP RESPIRATORY ORGANS 169 

possible to clinically diagnose hydrothorax nntil the advanced stages. 
There will be difficult respiration, and if the thoracic wall is not too 
thick a splashing sound may be noted synchronous with the heart- 
beat. An exploratory puncture with a small hypodermic needle will 
usually result in the discharge of serous fluid. 

Treatment. — Temporary relief may be obtained by withdrawing 
the fluid from the cavitj-, but permanent results cannot be expected 
until the primary causative factor has been removed or overcome. 

HEMOTHORAX 

Hemothorax is a condition of the escape and accumulation of blood 
in the thoracic cavity. It is not a recognized clinical entity, par- 
ticularly in relation to swine, yet it does occur, and is sometimes 
observed by inspectors of meat -food products. 

Etiology. — This condition is observed in swine that have been 
transported to market, and the affected swine at the time of autopsy 
show evidence of having been injured, probably while in transit. 
The injury may be a puncture, wound, or a contusion. 

Lesions. — Accumulation of blood in the thorax characterizes this 
condition. The blood may be coagulated, but it usually remains in 
the fluid state until the thorax is opened. The quantity of blood 
Vvill depend upon the nature of the injury and the length of time 
clasping after its infliction. If the hemorrhage is of long standing, 
pigmentation of the pleura may be the only evidence remaining. 

Symptoms. — The majority of animals affected with hemothorax 
show no symptoms. There may be paleness of the visible mucous 
membranes, weakness of the animal, and difficult breathing due to 
compression of the lung, but these symptoms are evident only in 
those cases in which the hemorrhage is extensive. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment is of no value. 

PNEUMOTHORAX 

This is characterized by the accumulation of air in the thoracic 
cavity, a condition extremely rare in swine. The usual cause of 
the condition is injury in which the lung tissue is lacerated. The 
injury most frequently consists of fracture of a rib occasioned by 
improper handling in transportation. 

The principal lesion observed consists of the primary injury. The 
thorax is found to contain air, and the Inng is compressed. 



170 SWINE PRACTICE 

PLEURISY 

Pleurisy is inflammation of the pkura and may be serous, fibrin- 
ous, hemorrhagic, or purulent ; acute or chronic. It is not a com- 
mon condition among swine, at least in so far as the clinical recog- 
nition of it is concerned. 

Acute Pleuristj 

Etiology. — Acute pleurisy is practically always the result of infec- 
tion, although there are many predisposing factors that are active 
in diminishing resistance and thus increasing the possibility of suc- 
cessful infection. The causative organisms may gain entrance to 
the pleura from the lungs through puncture wounds, through the 
blood, and through the lymph. 

Lesions. — The pleura becomes hypereniic. tumetied, and dry. This 
stage is succeeded by an outpouring of a serous, fibrinous, or hemor- 
rhagic exudate upon the pleural surface. Should the disease be due 
to the activity of pyogenic organisms the exudate will soon become 
purulent, and the future changes depend upon the nature of the 
exudate. Serous exudate may accumulate in quantities in the pleural 
cavity, and remain fluid although it may contain flakes of coagula. 
The fibrinous and hemorrhagic exudates coagulate early and produce 
greater or less adhesion of the visceral and parietal pleura. The 
hemorrhagic exudate is characterized by the presence of quantities 
of hemoglobin, which gives to it a red or blood color. 

Ctironic Pleurisy 

Chronic pleurisy is characterized by the formation of varying 
quantities of fibrous tissue which produce permanent adhesions of 
the two layers of the pleura. There may also be considerable quan- 
tities of a fluid (serous) exudate in the pleural cavity, and there 
may be abscess formation, the pus being circumscribed by a definite 
capsule. 

Symptoms. — Difficult breathing, each effort being accompanied by 
a grunt, and sensitiveness of the thorax, characterize pleurisy. In 
the acute cases there is inappetence, high temperature, and usually 
constipation. Chronic cases frequently show little evidence of dis- 
turbance. 

The acute type has a relatively short course, terminating in recov- 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 171 

ery, or in death within a few days. The chronic form may persist 
for weeks or even months. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause of the trouble and establish sanitary 
conditions. The treatment of symptoms as they arise will be of some 
value. If an excessive quantity of serous fluid accumulates in the 
pleural cavity it should be withdrawn. 

TUMORS 

Pleuritic tumors are not common in swine. Fibromas have been 
encountered on a few occasions. Of the malignant tumors, endothe- 
lioma and sarcoma predominate, but are unusual. 

Diaphragm 

Sl'ASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM (THUMPS) 

Thumps is a condition caused by violent contractions of the dia- 
phragm, and is relatively common in small pigs. 

Etiology. — Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm is caused by 
stimulation of the phrenic nerve. There are several different con- 
ditions that appear to be causative factors in the production of 
thumps. Disturbance of digestion is one of the most common asso- 
ciated conditions that results in thumps. Overloading of the stomach, 
improper food, gastritis and enteritis are conditions conducive to 
thumps. Pneumonia, hog cholera, and a variety of other diseases 
are frequently accompanied by thumps. 

Symptoms. — There is a sudden jerking of the flanks. This symp- 
tom is very prominent when it occurs in a pig that is standing 
quietly, and there may be an accompanying sound that is quite dis- 
tinct. There is regularity as to the frequency of the contractions; 
sometimes they occur in rapid succession, followed by a period of 
apparently a normal condition, then another series of contractions. 
Exercise and a full stomach aggravate the condition. The pig may 
become weak and emaciated. The course of the disease varies from 
one week to two or three months. 

Treatment. — Good nourishing food and plenty of exercise are 
usually sufficient to correct spasms of the diaphragm. Small doses 
of from two to three drops of tincture of opium, administered with 
oil, will usually giv€ temporary relief. 





CHAPTER IV 


URO-GENITAL SYSTEjI 


Anatomical Consideration 


Kidneys 

Malformation 




Hydronephrosis 




Hemorrhage 




Fatty changes 




Calculi 




Congestion 






^ acute parenchymal ous 




acute interstitial 


Nephritis -< 


purulent 




chronic 


Pyelonephritis 


, chronic interstitial 


Albuminuria 




Uremia 




Hematuria 




Parasites 




Tumors 




Ureters 




Bladder 




Malformatior. 




Hemorrhagt 




Dilatation 




Calculi 




Cvstitis • 


purulent 


catarrhal 


Tumors 




Trethra 




Stricture 




Urethrititis 




Prostate glands 




Cowper's glands 





URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 



173 



Testicles 

Orchitis 
Tumors 
Parasites 

Penis 

Ovary 

Malformation 

Hemorrhage 

Oophoritis 

Cysts 
Tumors 

Fallopian Tubes 

Uterus 

jMal formation 

Injuries 

Hemorrhage 

Metritis 

Tumors 

Vagina 

Vulva 

Mammary glands 



INIammitis. 
Tumors 



abscess 

botryomycotic 
catarrhal 
parenchymatous 



Abortion (Chapter V) 
Sterility (Chapter VI) 

Anomalies and diseases of the pig (Chapter VII) 
Persistent uracil us 
Atresia ani 
Navel 111 
Rickets 
Scour 

Pulmonary ascaridiasis 
Infectious rhinitis 
Stomatitis in sucklings 



174 SWINE PRACTICE 

Anatomical Consideration 

URINARY ORGANS 



The kidneys of swine are located beneath the transverse processes 
of the first four Inmbar verterbrae. The left kidney frequently ex- 
tends slightly anterior to the right one. The kidneys of swine have a 
smooth surface. They are approximately the shape of a bean and 
normally are of pale red color, although the shade is variable. They 
weigh about 8 ounces in a normal mature swine and are about 5 
inches in length and 2 to 3 inches in width. The hilus occupies the 
concavity. The blood-vessels enter the kidney through the hilus and 
the ureter extends from it to the bladder. The ureters are relatively 
long and flexuous. The bladder is relatively large and projects well 
forward into the abdominal cavity. 

The adrenals extend forward from the hilus of the kidney and 
are relatively thin, long and narrow^ 

GENITAL ORGANS 

Boar 

The genital organs of the boar consist of: scrotum, testicles, 
epididymis, spermatic cord, seminal vesicles, prostate gland and 
penis. 

The scrotum is not distinctly outlined and is located below the 
anus. The testicles are comparatively large and elliptical in shape. 
The semen of the boar is usually thick and ropy in consistency, and 
in aged boars it may contain small masses or granules. 

The spermatic cord is long and flexuous. The cremaster muscle 
is well developed. The seminal vesicles are large and extend well 
forward. In a mature boar these glands are about six inches in 
length and cover a large portion of the posterosuperior surface of 
the bladder. The prostate gland is located on the neck of the blad- 
der beneath the seminal vesicles. In mature boars there are bulbo- 
urethral glands that are exceedingly large, located on either side of 
the pelvic portion of the urethra. 

The penis of the boar is about 19 inches in length. It is devoid 
of a glans but the anterior extremity is spirally twisted. The urethra 
is slit like and situated near the extremity. There is a flexure lo- 
cated antero-inferiorly to the scrotum. The muscles of the penis are 
quite well developed. 

The prepuce has a small opening that is surrounded by bristles. 
The preputial cavity is long and is incompletely divided into an 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEIM 175 

anterior and posterior portion. There are numerous lymph nodules 
in the posterior cavity. A cul-de-sac is usually present in the an- 
terior portion. Calculi are of common occurrence in the cul-de-sac. 

Sow 

The genital organs of the sow consist of : ovaries, fallopian tubes, 
uterus, vagina and vulva. The mammary glands are usually con- 
sidered as accessories. 

The ovaries of the sow are usually irregularly lobulated due to 
follicles and corpora lutea. They are rounded but present a hilus 




Fig. 33. Testicles of boar. O, testes; P,R. epididymis; S,T. spermatic cord. 

(White's Castration.) 

that contacts the fimbriated ampulla of the fallopian tubes. The 
faMopian tubes are relatively short and extend from the ovary to 
the extremity of the horn of the uterus. 

The uterus is composed of a short body, the bifurcation of which 
forms the horns. The body rarely exceeds 2 inches in length. The 
horns are relatively long and irregularly flexuous. They are loosely 
srspended by the broad ligaments. 

The vagina is about 5 inches in length and is relatively small in 
caliber. The vulva is 3 to 4 inches in length and presents a superior 
commissure that is rounded and an inferior pointed commissure. 



176 SWINE PRACTICE 

The clitoris is relatively long. The urethra is from 3 to 4 inches 
in length. 

The mammae are arranged in two series on either side of the 
median line. There are 10 or 12 distinct glands and the same nnm- 
ber of teats. Each teat nsually has two openings and two ducts. 

The urine of swine is clear, of slight odor, pale color, faint alka- 
line reaction and has a specific gravity of 1010 to 1015. The com- 
position is approximately as follow^s : 

Urea 5 c^ 

Potassium bicarbonate 10% 

Potassium sulphate - 2% 

Magnesium carbonate 1% 

Sodium chloride -.. 1% 

Phosphates 1 % 

Water 80 % 




Fig. 34. External and internal generative organs of the sow. A, ovarie.s; 
B, uterine horns and fallopian tubes; C, uterus; D, vagina; E, vulva. 
("White's Castration.) 



The exact composition of the urine of swine depends upon the 
nature of the food. Tlie amount excreted daily varies from 8 to 15 
pints. 

Mammary Secretion 

The mammary glands of the sow are arranged serially on either 
side of the median line and usually consist of 10 to 12 distinct glands. 
An ordinary sow produces from 4 to 7 lbs. of milk p.-^r day. Tb. > 
ccmposition of the milk according to the average of a series of analys?:> 
is as follows : 

Butterfat 7% 

Casein and albumin 6% 

Sugar 5.7% 

Ash 1% 

Water 80.3% 



tJRO-GENlTAL SYSTEM 



177 



From the above it will be seen that the total solids of sow's milk 
are relatively high. The fat globules of sow's milk are only about 
one-fourth the size of those of cow's milk, which renders sow's milk 
more readily digestible. By a limited number of experiments, it 
has been found that by increasing the albuminous constituents in 
food there will be an increased production of milk and also an in- 
creased percentage of fat in the milk. The mammary secretion usual- 
ly continues for from ten to fifteen weeks. 

Swine are prone to various disease conditions of the organs consti- 
tuting the uro-genital system. This may be due to the nature of their 
feed stuff, which is often fermented or putrid. 

Kidneys 

Kidney diseases are especially common in swine. Frequently the 
pathologic condition of the kidneys is not of sufficient intensity to 




Fig. 35. Kidr.cy cf twine. Surface and section. (0:tertag. ) 

produce recognizable symptoms, but a diseased condition is easily de- 
tected by autopsy or on inspection of the carcasses of dressed hogs. 

MALFORMATIONS 

There may be a total absence of one or the other kidney. A horse- 
shoe-shaped kidney is also occasionally observed. Floating kidney 
has been reported, but from the number of recorded cases the con- 
dition is relativelv rare. 



HYDRONEPHROSIS 



Hydronephrosis, or cystic kidney, is of frequent occurrence in 
swine. It is very commonly encountered by the food inspector. 



178 SWINE PRACTICE 

Tucks reported 0.67 per cent of cystic kidneys in over six thousand 
hogs examined, and the writer found this condition in the kidneys 
of twenty-nine swine in three thousand examined. The condition 
may affect one or both kidneys. 

Etiology. — Obstructed outflow of urine is the primary cause of 
cyst formation in the kidney. The anatomical arrangement of the 
openings of the ureters into the bladder predisposes to their ob- 
struction and therefore to the accumulation of urine in the kidney 
pelvis. Renal and pelvic calculi and inflammatory products oc- 
casion obstruction of collecting tubules and favor cyst formation. 
Cicatrization of newly formed fibrous tissue may obstruct the out- 
flow of urine and cause cyst formation. Complete obstruction of 
the ureters or kidney pelvis will not as a rule result in hydrone- 
phrosis, as this condition results in a compensatory activity on the 
part of the normal kidney. 

Lesions. — Hydronephrosis may occur as cysts in the renal sub- 
stance or the kidney may be practically replaced by a variable-sized 
watery bag. The cysts vary in size from a pinhead to an inch in 
diameter. There may be myriads of the small cysts scattered through- 
out the kidney but occurring primarily in the cortical portion. The 
larger cysts are usually not numerous and they frequently repre- 
sent the fusion of small cysts. The cysts have a bluish-white color, 
are definitely surrounded by a distinct capsule, and the content is 
thin and watery. The kidney substance between the cysts is 
atrophied, due to pressure. In extreme cases the kidney capsule 
may serve as the cystic capsule, the entire mass being much enlarged 
and the small atrophied kidney floating within. Richter reported 
a case of a hydronephrotic kidney w^eighing over ninety pounds. 

HEMORRHAGE 

Kidney hemorrhage is relatively common in swine, not as a primary 
condition, but associated with some disease. The extravasated blood 
may escape into the uriniferous or collecting tubules, producing 
hematuria, or it may escape into the kidney tissue. 

Etiology. — Injury of the capillaries, either glomerular or tubular, 
may result in hemorrhage. The vessels are most frequently damaged 
by chemical substances that are being eliminated in the urine or by 
products of bacteria produced in the kidney or elsewhere in the 
body. 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 



179 



Lesions. — Escaped blood into the iiriniferous tubules may be de- 
tected by examination of the urine, which, by the way, is very in- 
frequently done. The urine will be discolored with hemaglobin and 
will contain blood casts. Renal-tissue hemorrhages may be extensive 
or limited, but rarely is extensive extravasation observed in the 
kidney. Small-tissue hemorrhages, particularly petechial hemor- 
rhages, are of common occurrence in the kidney of swine affected 



--'^ii 



^■' 










V- 







Fig. 36. HEMOREHAcic KU)i\EV — HOG CHOLERA. A, glomerule; B, iiDrmai 
kidney tissue; C, hemorrhagic petechia. 



with hog cholera. Such hemorrhages have been observed in the 
kidney of otherwise apparently healthy swine in which no other 
lesions of cholera could be detected, and the blood from these hogs, 
when injected into healthy, susceptible pigs, failed to produce evi- 
dence of hog cholera. These hemorrhages were not numerous; some- 
times only a few could be recognized by a careful examination ; 
their exact relation has not been discovered. The petechial hemor- 
rhage of cholera merely evidences a vascular disturbance. 



180 SWINE PRACTICE 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of renal hemorrhage except in those 
cases in which the blood escapes into the renal tubules and produces 
hematuria are obscure. In rare instances hemorrhage into the kid- 
ney tissue may be so extensive that the elimination of urea is di- 
minished to an extent that the animal will evidence symptoms ot 
uremia. The usual symptoms of infectious diseases in which renal 
hemorrhage occurs are readily recognized but are not dependent up- 
on the hemorrhage into the kidney. 

Treatment. — The treatment of renal lieniorrhage is not satisfac- 
tory. 

FATTY CHANGES 

The occurrence of the so-called large white kidney is a common 
experience, at least to those engaged in meat inspection. "Large 
white kidney" is a name applied to two different conditions — fatty 
kidney and fibrous kidney. The fatty white kidney is less common 
than the fibrous white kidney. 

Etiology. — Some renal vascular disturbance in the kidney or gen- 
eral malnutrition appears to be the causative factor in the produc- 
tion of fatty kidneys. 

Lesions. — The affected kidney is large and creamy white in color. 
The capsule is easily stripped, and the kidney substance is soft and 
feels greasy. Only one kidney is affected in those cases in which the 
kidney is exceedingly large. Both kidneys may be affected, but 
only to a limited degree. 

Symptoms. — No primary symptoms characterize this condition. It 
is detected only on autopsy. 

CALCULI 

Renal calculi occur ])ut are not common in swine. They nia.y 
occur in the collecting tubules but are more likely to be found in the 
renal pelvis. 

Etiology. — The formation of renal calculi is usually associated with 
an obstructed outflow of urine. Retained urine in the renal pelvis 
or in the collecting tubules has a tendency to undergo fermentation, 
with the production of an unbalanced condition of the chemical con- 
stituents resulting in precipitation. Retained urine and fermenta- 
tion also favor catarrhal inflammation. The mucopurulent discharge 
may serve as a nucleus upon which the precipitate is deposited. ' 



^ URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 181 

Lesions. — Retention of urine and catarrhal inflammation are 
usually evident. The ealcular deposits may be very small and diffi- 
cult to detect or they may be quite large, one having been observed 
that practically filled the renal pelvis. The calculi may be variable 
in shape, color, and consistency, depending upon their composition, 
and are composed of magnesium or calcium phosphates, urates, or 
carbonates. 

Symptoms. — Cloudy urine, particularly when the last discharge 
contains quantities of l)rownish deposit, will be observed if the cal- 
culi are passing out. The animals will have colicky pains, the loins 
will be sensitive, and the animals will stand with arched back. If 
the calculi are small and remain in the kidney there may be no evi- 
dent symptoms. 

Treatment. — If the patient is in good condition it will be most 
economical to sell it for slaughter. Very little can be done toward 
the actual solution of the formed calculi. 

CONGESTION 

Congestion of the kidneys is common in swine fed on putrid or 
fermented foods. It may occur as a result of undue exposure, to 
cold experienced in shipping, or it may be due to injury. The con- 
dition is associated with erysipelas, hog cholera, and some forms 
of pneumonia. 

Etiology. — Chemical poison obtained in food, by-products of in- 
fection, or destructive metabolism cause renal congestion. Exposure 
and injury may also produce this condition. 

Symptoms. — Stiffness and a stilty gait due to hypersensitiveness of 
the loins usually accompany congestion. There is also frequent uri- 
nation in which an excessive quantity of urine is voided. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause, give good food, and provide sani- 
tary surroundings. Alkaline diuretics may be of value, and laxa- 
tives may also be used to advantage. 

NEPHRITIS 

It is not possible with the present available knowledge to classi- 
fy the inflammatory disturbances of the kidney in a satisfactory 
manner. The principal knowledge of porcine nephritis has been 
obtained from investigation by veterinarians in food-inspection 
service. The condition is rarely recognized clinically, or at least 



182 



SWINE PRACTICE 



the reports of clinical cases of nephritis in swine are very rare. 
Urinalj'sis is not practiced systematically by veterinarians, and the 
analysis of swine urine by practitioners is practically an nnheard-of 
procedure. According to the findings of the veterinary inspectors, 
porcine nephritis is very common. In some instances nephritis ap- 
pears to be the only pathologic condition existing, but it is also an 



/a ^ / 





















V 'j 



• » 



« *"ti * ■» *>; 






=!*-• » .' 



t-^ ,i » « . 



^^^Zi 









Fig. 37. HYPKKEMic KIDNEY. A. coiivoluted tubule; B, glomerules engorged 
with blood; C, engorged capillaries between tubules. 



accompanying pathologic factor in such diseases as hog cholera, swine 
plague, septicemia, and pneumonia. 

Acute Parenclnjrnntous Nephritis 

This is an inflammation of the cells of the glomeruli and convoluted 
tubules and is characterized by a rather rapid onset, tumefaction, 
and frequently destruction of the affected epithelium. 

Etiology. — Exposure to cold and injuries of various kinds pre- 
dispose to this disease. The specific exciting causes are usually 
chemical substances that are being eliminated through the renal 
epithelium. Bacterial products, and vegetable and mineral poisons, 
when present in sufficient quantities, are capable of establishing in- 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 



183 



flammation. Thus piieuniouia, hog' cholera, swine plague, and septic 
infections are usually accompanied by nephritis. Some serum pro- 
ducers have had losses of hyperimmune swine due to contaminated 
virus. In the swine that died in these cases not only the lesions evi- 
dencing general septic infection were present but also marked lesions 
of an acute parenchymatous nephritis. Turpentine, phenol, and the 
various coal-tar products are capable of producing nephritis. Cor- 




A B 

Fig. 38. KIDNEYS. A. no:mal; B. hog cholera (turkey egg) kidney. 



rosive sublimate, too, may be obtained in sufficient quantities to pro- 
duce the disease. 

Lesions. — The lesions of acute parenchymatous nephritis are prac- 
tically confined to the epithelium of the glomeruli and convoluted 
uriniferous tubules. The affected kidney is slightly enlarged and has 
a parboiled appearance. The capsule is easily removed, the kidney 
substance is usually soft, and blood escapes freely from a cut sur- 
face. Microscopically the affected epithelium is affected with hy- 



184 SWINE PRACTICE 

peremia and cloudy swelling which may become so intensive that 
the cells undergo necrosis. The detritis of the dead cells and coagu- 
lated exudate, accumulated in the lumina of the tubules, may be 
readily observed. The intertubular tissue may be infiltrated with 
leukocytes. If the inflammation is intense there may be hemorrhage 
into the kidney substance or into the glomeruli or tubules. 

Symptoms. — The animals show evidence of distress. One of the 
first indications of the disease is arched back and stilty gait. There 
are frequent attempts at urination, but little urine is voided, and 
the animals usually have a temperature ranging from 104 to 106 de- 
grees Fahrenheit. In the beginning of the attack they may eat, but 
inappetence becomes evident soon after the onset. It is possible that 
the foregoing symptoms are not characteristic of uncomplicated 
nephritis, but of cases in which nephritis was the most prominent 
condition. In the cases that have been observed the disease most 
frequently terminated fatally in from two to four days after the on 
set, the few cases that recovered requiring from one to six weeks. 

Treatment. — The treatment of nephritis in swine is a difficult prob- 
lem. Resort should be had to the usual hygienic practices. Dia- 
phoresis is not practical in swine, and purgation should not be resort- 
ed to as a means of elimination, for such procedure would probably 
aggravate the condition existing in the kidney. General treatment 
of symptoms as they arise is probably all that can be accomplished 
therapeutically until further knowledge is obtained. 

AckIc Interstitial Xephritis 

An occasional kidney is found in which there is a leukocytic in- 
vasion and other evidence of a reaction in the interstitial or sup- 
porting tissue, the parenchymatous tissue being unaffected. But this 
condition is not common, and thus far has not been observed clinically 
in swine. 

Purulent Nepliritis 

Purulent nephritis is inflammation of the kidney characterized 
by the formation of pus, a condition of frequent occurrence in swine. 
In the study of swine kidneys from abattoirs one-half of one per 
cent have been found affected. 

Etiology. — Pyogenic cocci and the colon bacteria are the most com- 
mon causative agents. Purulent inflammation elsewhere in the body 
predisposes to renal metastasis, although purulent inflammation may 



TIRO-GENITAL SYSTEM 185 

occur primarily in tiie kidney. Constipation is probably a predis- 
posing factor of colon-bacillus invasion of the kidney. 

Lesions. — Suppuration may be circumscribed, thus forming an 
abscess or multiple abscess, or it may be dilfuse. Metastatic puru- 
lent nephritis usually involves both kidneys, and small suppurative 
centers occur as gray or yellow areas which are surrounded by a 
hyperemic zone. The larger foci may be quite definitely circum- 
scribed and frequently have small bands of fibrous tissue extending 
from the capsule into the purulent center. Microscopically the 
small centers are found in the beginning to be collections of 
leukocytes and later of pus. The surrounding parenchymatous tissue 
will be affected with cloudy swelling, as in acute parenchymatous 
nephritis. 

Symptoms. — Practically the same symptoms are observed in puru- 
lent nephritis as in acute parenchymatous nephritis, except that in 
those eases in which there is absorption of quantitis of pus, there 
is evidence of pyemia. 

Treatment. — Symptomatic treatment may be of value. The cause 
should be removed, and the patient given sparingly of easily di- 
gested food. 

(7) ron ic Nephritis 

Chronic nephritis is a common condition in swine. It is not an 
important disease from the viewpoint of the practitioner, but it is 
of some economic importance to the packer as many kidneys are 
found to be affected. Chronic nephritis represents a group of patho- 
logic conditions — at least, there is a variety of different types of 
lesions observed. One type of chronic nephritis has been studied and 
named '^ chronic non-indurative nephritis," but from the general 
lesions in these kidneys it seems probable that the condition is con- 
fined to the parenchyma and should be called "chronic parenchy- 
matous nephritis." 

Chronic Interstitial Nephritis 

Typical chronic interstitial nephritis is characterized by the pro- 
liferation of fibrous tissue which may or may not cicatrize. This 
condition includes white-spotted kidneys, some large white kidneys, 
granular kidneys, sclerotic atrophied kidneys, and all variations of 
the foregoing. 

Etiology. — Chronic nephritis, especially the type involving only the 



186 SWINE PRACTICE 

supporting framework, is caused primarily by relatively mild ir- 
ritants acting over a long period of time. These cases have not 
been recognized clinically, but by tracing the swine that show the 
lesions when slaughtered it is usually found that the feed of the 
animals has been at fault. In some cases parasites and calculi are 
responsible for the condition. 

Lesions. — Chronic parenchymatous nephritic kidneys are enlarged. 
The capsule is not easily removed, and when pealed off small frag- 
ments of kidney tissue remain attached to it. The kidney is mottled, 
due to hemorrhages and infarction, and there is no definite line of 
demarcation between the medulla and cortex. Microscopically the 
parenchymatous cells are found enlarged and cloudy, but tube casts 
are rarely observed. 

Chronic interstitial nephritis is characterized by fibrous pro- 
liferation. The newly formed fibrous tissue may or may not cicatrize. 
The gross appearance of the kidney varies according to the amount 
and disposition of fibrous tissue. If the condition is localized accord- 
ing to the distribution of small arteries the fibrous tissue will occur 
in foci, and spotted kidney is the result, the white spot being masses 
of fibrous tissue. If this fibrous tissue is uniformly deposited 
throughout the kidney and does not cicatrize, the kidney is enlarged, 
dense, and hard — one of the types of the large white kidney. CTranu- 
lar kidneys are the result of the proliferation, and later cicatrization, 
of fibrous tissue in and around the glomeruli or tubules. Granular 
kidneys have rough, small projections thickly studded over the sur- 
face; such kidneys are usually of a red color. The extensive pro- 
liferation and cicatrization of fibrous tissue in all the cortical sub- 
stance, when associated with a thickening of the capsule, produce 
the small, hard, or sclerotic kidney. Microscopically excessive quanti- 
ties of fibrous tissue are found, and the parenchymatous tissue is 
diminished, due to pressure atrophy. Sometimes there may be large 
areas of fibrous tissue in which no parenchymatous tissue appears 
or only remnants of tubules or glomeruli. 

Symptoms. — Eecords of the clinical evidence of chronic interstitial 
nephritis in swine are wanting. Swine wath extensive kidney lesions 
are usually in fair condition Avhen they are observed at the time of 
slaughter. 

Treatment. — The application of therapeutic agents for the relief of 
chronic interstitial nephritis in swine has not been practiced. Should 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 187 

such a case be diagnosed, the removal of the cause and the provision 
of good quarters and wholesome food would probably be sufficient 
until the animal was in condition for slaughter. 

PYELONEPHRITIS 

Pyelonephritis is an intiammation of the pelvis of the kidney, a 
condition that has been observed in swine but is rare. 

Etiology. — Calculi and parasites are frequently predisposing 
factors in this disease. Primarily, the disease is the result of in- 
fection. Pyogenic bacteria may cause the condition, but more fre- 
quently it is caused by a pleomorphic organism that has been named 
corynehacilhis re7ialis. 

Lesions. — The pelvis of the kidney is dilated with a thick, brown- 
ish, purulent fluid and tissue shreds. The mucosa of the renal pelvis 
is thick and contains hemorrhagic spots. The kidney may contain 
purulent centers or it may be converted into a purulent mass. 

Symptoms. — Frequent urination is a symptom of this disease, the 
urine voided being cloudy. Loin sensitiveness and inappetence are 
also observed in these cases. 

Treatmeiit.— Thus far no treatment has been found that is of any 
value. 

ALBUMINURIA 

Albuminuria is a condition in which there is elimination of albumin 
in the urine. 

Urinalysis is now in its infancy in veterinary medicine. Con- 
siderable time and energy have been devoted to the study of urine 
from some animals, particularly the horse, but little attention has 
been given to systematic urinalysis of swine. 

Urine has been collected from the bladder of the carcasses of 
swine that have been slaughtered, and analyzed. It is possible that 
there may be some modification of the urine of slaughtered animals, 
but it is doubtful if the changes are of much significance. 

Albuminuria has been found to exist in swine showing a high 
temperature, particularly cases that have been afi'ected with cholera. 
The urine has also been found to contain varying quantities of al- 
bumin in which there was an acute nephritis. Pneumonic cases also 
evidenced albumin in the urine. 

The exact cause of albuminuria is still being debated. The con- 
dition in swine, as well as in other animals, occurs in those cases 



188 SWINE PRACTICE 

where the renal epithelium is damaged either by degeneration or 
inflammation, although it may occur in the absence of damaged 
epithelium. Some veterinarians are maintaining that albuminuria 
is caused by acid intoxication. 

At this time, with our present knowledge, albuminuria, at least in 
swine, must be thought of as secondary to some other conditions. 
Albuminuria in swine has not been studied clinically, therefore, 
symptoms of the condition cannot be recorded. It is an important 
condition because albuminous substances that should be conserved 
are eliminated from the body in the urine. Disturbances of nutrition 
follow, and the primary and associated conditions produce emacia- 
tion and marasmus. Albuminuria usually terminates fatally. 

UREMIA 

Uremia is a condition characterized by the presence in the blood 
of a greater or less amount of the solid constituents of urine. This 
condition has not been identified clinically in swine, but the nature 
of the lesions observed in some kidneys by veterinary inspectors is 
sufficient evidence that the disease exists in swine. 

Etiology. — The primary cause of uremia is obstructed outflow of 
urine, which may be the result of disturbance in the kidneys, ureter 
bladder, or urethra. Severing or puncturing the ureters during oper- 
ations, as in cesarean section, may result in uremia. 

Lesions. — No particular gross tissue changes are attributed to 
uremia. The lesions found are those incidental to the obstruction 
of the outflow of urine, as calculi, tumors, and so on. 

Symptoms. — Stupor, vertigo, emesis, inappetence, diarrhea, clonic 
muscular spasms, and convulsions are the principal symptoms of 
uremia. The disease, at least in the acute form, is usually fatal. 
Chronic uremia is associated with digestive derangements. 

Treatment. — Removal of the cause is practically always success- 
ful unless the case is too far advanced. Therapeutic treatment is 
of no value. 

HEMATURIA 

Hematuria is a condition in which there is blood in the urine 
and is relatively common in swine. Blood may contaminate urine in 
the kidney, ureter, bladder or urethra. 

Etiology. — Injuries of blood-vessels, particularly of capillaries, is 



ITRO-GENITAL SYSTEJI 189 

one of the most conmion causes of hematuria. Capillary injuries 
may be caused by chemic irritants that are being eliminated by the 
kidney, or by microbes or other products. Thus, hematuria of renal 
origin is common in acute intiammatory disturbances of the kidneys, 
and is a frequent symptom in certain acute infectious diseases, such 
as anthrax, hog cholera and swine plague. Calcular formations in 
any portion of the urinary passage are prone to produce hemorrhage. 
Tumors such as papilloma and angioma may be so located in the 
urinary passages that erosion of blood-vessels may occur and per- 
mit of the escape of blood. 

Lesions. — Hematuria is characterized by blood in the urine. The 
kidney lesions in those cases in which there is blood in the urine 
will depend upon the cause of the hematuria and there may be evi- 
dence of any of the various types of nephritis; anatomical altera- 
tions characterizing anthrax, hog cholera or swine plague ; tumors 
in the renal pelvis or the parenchyma of the kidney ; and renal 
calcular formation. The lesions of the ureter, bladder and urethra 
may be inflammatory in character, alterations due to tumor forma- 
tion or the result of calculi. 

Symptoms.— The pathognomonic symptom of hematuria is blood 
in the urine. The origin of the blood may be determined by urin- 
alysis coupled with a careful examination of the case. Renal 
hematuria, excepting in those cases in which the blood has entered 
the urine in the pelvis of the kidney, is typified by blood tube casts. 
Hemorrhage into the urine in the renal pelvis, ureters, or bladder is 
characterized by a relatively complete admixture of the blood and 
urine. In urethral hemorrhage the blood precedes the urine during 
urination. 

Treatment. — The treatment of cases in which hematuria is present 
will depend upon the cause of the condition. If hematuria is the 
result of chemic irritants being eliminated from the kidney, sooth- 
ing diuretics are indicated, such as buchu or corn silk. In cases 
where hematuria is associated with infective diseases, the usual meth- 
ods employed in combatting the infection should be used. The 
treatment of cases of hematuria resulting from tumors or calculi is 
not satisfactory. Hematuria of cystic origin may be overcome in 
females by catheterization and the introduction of antiseptics and 
astringents into the bladder. Urethral calculi in males may be re- 
moved by operation and the condition causing hemorrhage removed. 



190 



SWINE PRACTICE 
PARASITES 



The cystic form of the Taenia solium of man has been observed in 
the kidney of swine, but is not of common occurrence in that lo- 
cation. The cystic forms of the Taenia echinococcus also occur in 
this organ. 




Fig. 39. Adeno-sarcoma of the kidney. — A. Normal kidney tissue: B, hem- 
orrliagic areas; C. pelvis; D, sarcomatous tissue. This kidney was seven 
or eight times the size of a normal kidney. 



The Stephanurus dentatum is sometimes found in the kidney struc- 
ture, although it more commonly occurs in the perirenal fat. 



TUMORS 



The kidney of swine is affected with adenosarcoma. In the living 
swine the presence of these tumors is not suspected. They appear 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 191 

as irregular, incapsulated masses, usually involving only one kidney, 
and in size vary from five to fifteen pounds. Although they have 
not been recognized clinically, their structure and appearance evi- 
dence rapid growth. They have their origin in the kidney substance 
near the pelvis, and the tumor tissue produces pressure atrophy of 
the renal parenchyma. The outline of the tumor is irregular and 
frequently lobulated. On being sectioned, fibrous bands are found 
extending in various directions and dividing the tumor mass into 
lobes. The neoplastic tissue is of a white or dirty-white color, but 
is often mottled, due to hemorrhage; there may also be grayishr 
yellow centers of necrosis. JMicroscopically these tumors are com- 
posed of embryonic epithelium and connective tissue, the epithelium 
disposed as irregular tubules or remnants of tubules, while the con- 
not tive tissue occurs around and between the epithelial tumor cells. 
Sometimes larger areas of embryonic connective tissue cells are found 
independent of epithelium, and again the epithelium may occur in 
nests in the sarcomatous tissue. 

The time for growth of these tumors has not been determined, but 
they are most frequently found in swine less than two years of age. 

Sarcomas have also been encountered by veterinary inspectors in 
the kidney of swine. They are usually metastatic, although one case 
of a primary, large-spindle celled sarcoma has been recorded. 

Ureters 

MALFORMATIONS 

Elalformations of the ureters are not uncommon, but the malfor- 
mations that are observed are not of such a nature that the function 
of the organs is interfered with and therefore are of no practical 
importance. 

Renal pelvic calculi may become lodged in the ureters and es- 
tablish inflammatory disturbances, and also obstruct the lumen. 

The ureters are subject to injuries in spaying and other abdominal 
operations. 

Bladder 

MALFORMATIONS 

Malformations of the bladder are not common. A few cases of 
double bladder have been recorded, or the bladder may be very small, 



192 SWINE PRACTICE 

such animals urinating frequently. Vestiges of the uraehus may be 
retained, and these may become cystic. 

HEMORRHAGE 

Hemorrhages into the bladder sometimes occur in swine. They 
are caused by injuries which may be inflicted by calculi and from 
disease of the mucosa. They may also be caused by drugs, such as 
cantharides and turpentine, obtained accidentally in large quanti- 
ties. This condition is frequently associated with such diseases as 
hog cholera. 

Lesions. — The primary lesions observed depend upon the cause of 
hematuria. There may be cystic calculi, injuries of various kinds, 
infection, and lesions elsewhere in the body. The extravasated blood 
will be accumulated in the bladder and may or may not be coagu- 
lated, and the entire bladder content will be colored red with hema- 
globin liberated from the disintegrated red blood cells. 

Symptoms. — Hematuria is evidenced by bloody urine in which the 
entire urine is uniformly red. It is distinguished from renal hemor- 
rhage by the absence of tube casts, and from urethral hemorrhage 
by the fact that in urethral hemorrhage only the first urine voided 
is red. 

Treatment. — The exact cause should be identified and removed. 
Urinary sedatives may also be of value. 

DILATATION 

Cystic dilatation is sometimes occasioned bj' urethral obstruction 
or spasms of the muscles in the neck of the bladder. The urine con- 
tinues to be produced in the kidney and accinnulates in the bladder 
until its capacity may be far in excess of the normal. 

Lesions. — The characteristic lesion of dilatation consists of dis- 
tention of the bladder and attenuation of its walls. In fatal cases 
the bladder ruptures and urine and uriniferous odor are detected 
when the abdomen is opened, and the rent in the bladder wall will 
also be evident. 

Symptoms. — Distress, anuria, frequent attempts at urination, and 
possibly some enlargement of the abdomen characterize distended 
bladder. In distention succeeded by rupture the foregoing symp- 
toms would be succeeded by stupor, vertigo, emesis, inappetence, 
diarrhea, clonic muscular spasms, convulsions, and death. 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 193 

Treatment. — Treatment is available only during distention, and 
effort should be directed principally to removing the cause. If it 
is a urethral obstruction in the male and the obstruction is below 
the ischiatic arch an artificial opening may be made into the urethra 
where it passes over the ischiatic arch, giving temporary relief, and 
if the obstruction cannot then be removed the temporary opening in 
the urethra may be made permanent. In valuable animals obstructive 
calculi may be removed from the bladder by surgical procedure and 
the ( ondition thus corrected. Tumors and abscessps that effect 
urethral obstruction may be removed and permit of the ready outflow 
of urine through the urethra. 

CALCULI 

Cystic calculi are of common occurrence in swine. There may 
be a single calculus or there may be myriads of them. In size they 
vary from mere grains of sand to masses as large as English walnuts. 
In shape they may be spherical, ovoid, or various kinds of irregu- 
lar surfaces and outlines may be presented. Some have been ob- 
served that were practically the shape of jack straws. When several 
occur together they may be faceted. As a rule they are of a dirty- 
white color, though they may be of any color. They are usually 
composed of magnesium and calcium phosphates and carbonates. 

Etiology. — Retention and fermentation of urine in the bladder 
favor calculous formation. Retention and urine fermentation also 
favor catarrhal inflammation, which is associated with epithelial 
desquamation, and this serves as a nucleus for tlie calcareous de- 
posits. 

Lesions. — The presence of calculi is the principal thing to be sought 
for, and they are not difficult to identify. There is also more or 
less evidence of catarrhal cystitis, and there may be retention of 
urine. 

Symptoms. — Evidence of catarrhal cystitis — that is, frequent void- 
ing of relatively small quantities of urine — characterizes most cases 
of cystic calculi. The urine in these cases is frequently acrid and 
may produce disturbances in and around the prepuce of the male 
and in the perineal region of the female. Should the calculi produce 
obstruction to the outflow of urine there will be symptoms of cystic 
distention. 

Treatment. — Solvents for evstie calculi are not whollv successful. 



194 SWINE PRACTICE 

If the calculi are causing sueli disturbance that marked symptoms 
are evident, operative procedure is indicated, providing the value 
of the animal is sufficient to justify it. 

CYSTITIS 

Inflammation of the bladder may be catarrhal or purulent. Neither 
type has been extensively investigated by the clinician, therefore the 
present knowledge concerning them has been obtained by veterin- 
arians at abattoirs. 

Ca tarrh al Cystitis 

Catarrhal cystitis is not uncommon. In many instances the con- 
dition is associated with cystic calculi, but it may also be caused by 
infection. Occasionally several cases of catarrhal cystitis may oc- 
cur simultaneously or successively in the same herd, and on obtain- 
ing the history it is found that the aff'ected swine have been fed food 
stuff containing some urinary irritant or they have obtained quanti- 
ties of turpentine or cantharides. Ketention and fermentation of 
the urine predispose to inflammation of the cystic mucosa beeaus3 
of the liberation of ammonia. 

Lesions. — Catarrhal cystitis is characterized by the following 
sequential lesions of the mucosa: hyperemia, tumefaction, and coat- 
ing of the surface with tenacious mucus, desquamated epithelia, and 
pus cells. Later there is desquamation of the surface epithelium, 
leaving a denuded granulating surface. 

Symptoms. — Frequent attempts at urination in which small 
quantities of a turbid urine are eliminated are symptoms of catarrhal 
cystitis. There may be a straddling gait. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause. The bladder in females may be 
cleansed by a weak solution of corrosive sublimate or creolin, and 
urinary sedatives should be administered. Internal treatment is 
practically all that can be given in male animals aff'ected with 
cystitis. 

Purulent Cystitis 

Purulent cystitis is an inflammation of the urinary bladder ac- 
companied by the formation of pus. This condition is not so com- 
mon in swine as catarrhal cystitis. Predisposing causes mentioned 
in catarrhal cystitis are also operative in purulent cystitis. The 
exciting cause is most frequently the Bacillus coli communis, al- 



IJHO-GENITAL SVSTEAl 195 

though any of the pyogenic cocci may produce it, even the Bacil- 
lus pyoeyaneus being responsible for an occasional case of cystitis. 

Lesions. — Hyperemia, tumefaction of the mucosa, accumulation of 
tenacious mucus upon the mucosa, and the production of pus in 
quantities characterize purulent cystitis. The surface mucosa is 
eroded and becomes a granulating surface. 

Syniptoms. — Frequent urination and the voiding of small quanti- 
ties of urine admixed with pus typify purulent cystitis. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause, and cleanse the bladder of females 
with weak antiseptics. The males should be treated by internal 
medication, with urinary antiseptics and sedatives. 

TUMORS 

Very few tumors have been observed in the bladder of swine. 
Papillomata have been reported in a few cases. 

Urethra 

MALFORMATIONS AND INJURIES 

The urethra may be imperforate, particularly in the male. Such 
cases are rarely observed, and those affected die soon after birth. 
The condition is easily remedied providing the imperforation is 
near the outlet, by making a crucial incision or by puncture with a 
small trocar. 

Injury of the urethra in males may be inflicted by contact with 
barbed wire or other sharp objects, and the female urethra may be 
injured by forceps used during parturition. These injuries are not 
serious, though occasionally they may result in permanent fistulas. 

STRICTURE 

Stricture of the urethra may follow injuries or inflammation. In 
male swine catheterization is not practicable, and it is not an easy 
matter to locate a stricture or other obstruction in their urethrse. 

URETHRITIS 

Urethritis occurs in swine. It is most frequently a sequel of 
cystitis, although it may occur as a primary condition. It is prob- 
ably more common in males than in females, and is evidenced by 
painful urination. Treatment consists in giving urinary sedatives 
and inducing the animals to drink large quantities of clean, whole- 
some water in order that the urine may be diluted. 



196 SWINE PRACTICE 



Prostate Gland 



The prostate gland is located beneath the vesiculae seminales and 
embraces the neck of the bladder. This gland is not well developed 
except in boars. It is occasionally enlarged, due to infection with 
tubercle bacilli, colon bacilli, or pyogenic cocci. There may be ab- 
scess formation or fibrous proliferation in the prostate. Enlarged 
prostates partially obstruct the urethra by pressure, thus making 
urination difficult. 

Bulbo-Urethral or Cowper's Glands 

These are large glandular structures located on either side of 
the posterior portion of the pelvic urethra. Tliey are less developed 




Fig. 40. Testicle of ridgling boar. G, testes; H, globus major; I, globus 
minor; J, body of epididymis; K, spermatic cord. (White's Castration.) 



in the castrated animal, particularly if the operation be done in 
early life. They are also subject to infection and enlargement which 
produces pressure obstruction upon the urethra. 

Testicles 
Malformations of the male sexual glands are not uncommon, one 
or both testicles sometimes being abnormally small. Cryptorchidy 
is of common occurrence in swine. De Wolf inspected 4,671 male 
swine and found twenty-eight single, and seven double cryptorchids. 
Nearly five per cent of the male progeny of one of Missouri's most 
famous boars, Chief Tecumseh II, were cryptorchids. Liberty Chief 
and Chief I Know, two boars sired by Chief Tecumseh II, were 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 197 

noted breeders, and from three to five per cent of their get were 
cryptorchids. Chief Perfection II, sired by Chief Teeumseh II, 
was the sire of Chief Cherokee Perfection, that in turn sired about 
three per cent of cryptorchids. Cryptorchidism diminishes the value 
of a pig because of the greater castration risk. 

Because of their location, the testicles of a boar are subject to 
injuries of various kinds. Some instances have been observed in 
which it was necessary to castrate valuable boars that had their 
testicles so lacerated that recovery of their function was not possible. 
Injuries may be inflicted by dogs, sharp-cutting objects, or b}- 
crushing, as a result of cattle or horses treading upon the glands. 

ORCHITIS AND EPIDIDYMITIS 

Inflammation of the testicle has been observed, but is not of com- 
mon occurrence in swine. Orchitis and epididymitis are not easily 
differentiated. They are most frequently the result of mechanical 
injury, although the>- may result from infection. Tuberculous 
orchitis is not common in swine. 

Lesions. — The affected testicles or epididymi are enlarged and 
hyperemic. The secreting structures have a parboiled appearance. 
Suppurative orchitis is characterized by the formation of abscesses, 
or it may assume a diffuse form of suppuration in which pus infil- 
trates the tubular and intertubular tissue. 

Microscopically, the arterioles and capillaries are gorged with 
blood, and there is exudation into the seminiferous tubules and 
intertubular spaces of leukocytes and plasma. The spermatogenic 
cells are cloudy and may show disintegration. The spermatozoa 
are more or less disintegrated and inactive. 

Symptoms. — Enlarged, sensitive testicles are the chief symptoms 
by means of which orchitis or epididymitis is identified. There may 
be abnormal sexual excitement. 

Treatment. — Unless the animal is very valuable for breeding pur- 
poses, castration should be resorted to; otherwise, remove the cause 
and apply hot compresses, or alternating hot and cold compresses, 
upon the affected glands. Place the patient in comfortable quarters 
and where there will be no occasion for sexual excitement. 

TUMORS 

Testicular tumors are not common but appear as frequently in 
swine as in other animals. Both dermoid and dentigerous cysts 



198 SWINE PRACTICE 

have been encountered in the testicle, and while these are not de- 
structive to life, they dania<i'e the animal for 1)r(>eding purposes. Sar- 
comas and endotheliomas occasionally occur in the testicle, and are 
usually primary. They are malignant tumors, however, and swine 
with enlarged testicles are usually castrated. Fortunately, the oper- 
ation is commonly jjerformed before the tumors have metastasized, 
and thus the lives of the swine are not &aerificed. 

PARASITES 

Screw Worm Infestation 

Infestation of the castration wounds with screw-worms (larvtt of 
the Campsomyia macellaria) are very common in the southern part 
of the United States. These larva^ burrow into the tissues, thus 
mechanically injuring them and providing an avenue of entrance 
for various bacteria. 

Lesions.— The principal lesions consist of an active, acute inflam- 
mation with or without the production of pus. The surrounding 
tissues are tumefied, hyperemic, hemorrhagic, and contain the larvte. 
The extensive tumefaction developing within one or two days after 
castration is the most evident symptom. On a close inspection, larVcC 
may be observed near or upon the surface, and by manipulation of 
the lesion larvae may be forced out upon the surface. In cases 
of screw-worm infestation there is a constant sero-sanguineous dis- 
charge that by attracting the female fly favors repeated reinfestation. 

Treatment. — All that can be done in cases of screw-worm infesta- 
tion is to support the strength and minister to the comfort of the 
animal and prevent a further infestation from the deposition of more 
eggs or larvae upon the wound and patiently wait for the investing 
larva3 to reach the stage of development when they voluntarily leave 
the wound to pupate in the ground. This occurs in three to five 
days. 

The application of chloroform, naphthalene or other chemicals to 
the wound is worse than useless. Such measures not only fail to 
effect the removal of more than a small percentage of the larva?, but 
they also irritate the highly sensitive tissues and greatly aggravate 
the condition. 

None of the ordinary fly-repellents has any deterrent effect upon 
the female of the screw- worm fly in the presence of fresh blood, 
either in recent wounds or in the discharge from screw-worm in- 
fested wounds. However, a mixture comi^osed of turpentine one 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEJNE 199 

dram, phenol one dram and cotton seed oil four ounces is an etfective 
repellent for this fly, and where there is a probability of screw-worm 
infestation it should be applied to fresh wounds and to infested 
wounds as long- as the screw-worm larviv are present and the san- 
guineous discharge continuous. One application daily is sufficient. 

Penis 

Malformations of the penis are rare. One case has been observed 
of a double penis, the organ being double from the ischial arch. 
Each penis contained a normal urethra, the two uniting at the arch 
and continuing to the bladder as a single urethra. 

Injury to the penis of barrows is rare, although incised wounds 
may sever this organ. The penis of boars may be injured by per- 
mitting breeding in quarters containing machinery or other places 
where injuries of various kinds may be inflicted. 

Preputial concrements or calculi sometimes occur in swine. They 
occasion difficulty in urination or even retention of urine and some- 
times the urine accumulates in the sheatli in considerable quantities. 
The accretions are easily detected by an examination and are not 
difficult to remove. 

The lining of the prepuce may be infested with screw-worms, which 
will occasion considerable swelling and distress to the animal. For 
the treatment see page 198. Preputial inflammation due to irrita- 
tion from urine and infection sometimes requires care by cleansing 
and antiseptics. 

Ovary 

MALPORMATJONS AND IN.JURIES 

Malformations of the ovary are much more common than is gen- 
erally suspected. The most frequent anomaly consists of changed 
position which ordinarily does not appear to interfere with the nor- 
mal functioning of the organs. There may be two ovaries on one 
side and one on the other, or there may be two ovaries on each side. 
Either ovary may be exceptionally large or small, the other being 
normal in size. 

The ovaries may be injured, but this is rather the exception, owing 
to the thick body wall wliich serves as a protection. 



200 SWINE PRACTICE 

HEMORRHAGE 

Hemorrhage of the ovary may occur at the time of estrum, and 
is dependent upon the lacerating of a blood vessel when the graafian 
follicle ruptures. These hemorrhages are of no practical or economic 
significance. 

OOPHORITIS 

This condition has been observed in sows, but principally at abat- 
toirs by veterinary inspectors. It is usually secondary to metritis 
or salpingitis, though it may be metastatic or even primary. 

Lesions. — The affected ovary is enlarged, and, the surface being 
irregular, nodular projections of varying size occur. In the begin- 
ning the ovary is intensely red and cut surfaces bleed freely. The 
nodules represent enlarged graafian follicles, which usually contain 
a gelatinous substance and sometimes blood. Latent suppurative 
centers may occur and may or may not be definitely circumscribed 
by a fibrous capsule. The condition may assume a chronic form, 
the ovarian structure becoming dense and hard due to the prolifera- 
tion of fibrous tissue. 

Symptoms. — The principal evidence of ovarian inflammation is 
persistent, sexual desire, and is manifested by excitement, frequent 
urination, and the search for a mate. 

Treatment. — Anodynes may be used to quiet the animal tempor- 
arily, and the blood sujjply may be diverted by means of a saline 
purgative or atropine in full physiologic doses. Therapeutic agents 
are not at all certain in these cases, and if the patient is not espe- 
cially valuable for breeding purposes, spaying is recommended. 

CYSTS 

Ovarian cysts are quite common in sows. They probably have 
their origin from graafian follicles that have failed to properly 
mature. One or both ovaries may be affected. The cystic ovary may 
be uniformly enlarged or it may be lobulated, the size attained being 
variable. Reyer reported a case in which an ovarian cyst was found 
weighing seven pounds. 

Lesions. — The affected ovary may contain either a single cyst or 
many cysts. The cyst may be ovoid, spherical, or lobulated. In 
those cases of multiple cysts the cysts sometimes communicate with 
each other or are multilocular. The cystic content may be a thin, 
limpid fluid, jelly-like, glue-like, bloody, or even caseous. 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 201 

Symptoms. — The symptoms presented by a sow affected with cystic 
ovaries are variable. There may be indigestion and circulatory dis- 
turbances, but the most common symptom is persistence of the estrual 
period, the affected animals usually failing to conceive. 

Treament. — Oophorectomy is the only apparent relief for cystic 
ovaries. If only one ovary is affected, the sow may still be used 
for breeding purposes. 

DERMOID AND DENTIGEROUS CYSTS 

Dermoid and dentigerous cysts occur in the ovary, but are not 
of common occurrence in swine. 

TUMORS 

Endotheliomas and sarcomas have been observed in the ovary of 
swine, but they are rare. They partake of the same nature as do 
these tumors occurring elsewhere in the body. 

Fallopian Tubes 

MALP\)RMATIONS AND IN.JURIES 

Malformations of the fallopian tubes are not common. Injuries 
to the tubes may occur during the operation of spaying or cesarean 
section. 

An occasional case of pyosalpinx is observed in the carcasses of 
swine slaughtered at abattoirs. This condition is uncommon, and 
apparently of little clinical interest. 

Uterus 

M ALFORM ATIONS 

Malformations of the uterus are not signiticant because the majority 
of swine are fattened for market and are not used for breeding pur- 
poses. An occasional anomaly is observed, such as a rudimentary 
uterus, double uterus, atresia of the cervix, and so on. 

INJURIES 

Injuries to the uterus are not common except in those animals 
that have had difficulty in parturition and in which instruments 
have been used. In manv instances injuries produce no bad after 



202 SWINE PRACTICE 

effect, but occasionally they provide an avenue of entrance for infec- 
tion of the peritoneum and may result in fatal peritonitis. 



HEMORRHAGE 

Uterine hemorrhage in the sow is not of the same gravity as it is 
in the larger animals ; however, its control is more difficult in the 
sow than in larger animals because of the small size of the uterus. 

METRITIS 

Metritis has not occurred as commonly in the sow as in the cow 
until the recent appearance of an apparent infectious abortion which 
is frequently associated with intiammatory disturbances of the uterus. 
From the intensity of the process and the accompanying lesions it 
appears justifiable to pathologically classify porcine metritis as catar- 
rhal, purulent and septic. Catarrhal metritis may be either acute 
or chronic. In many instances the lesions appear to be confined to 
the uterine mucosa, and the proper designation would, therefore, be 
endometritis. Clinically the different types of intiammation of the 
uterine structures cannot be identified and the dfferent forms of 
metritis are all considered as differing only in degree or gravity. 

Etiology. — Metritis is due to infection and is usually a sequel of 
abortion or difficult parturition, although an occasional case is ob- 
served in which parturition has been apparently normal. There 
is apparently no one specific microbian agent that is responsible 
for metritis. Pyogenic micrococci, B. abortus Bang, and various 
representatives of the colon typhoid group are the principal micro- 
organisms that have been isolated from cases of metritis, although 
B. pyocyaneus, B. suipestifer, B. suisepticus and some other micro- 
bian agents have been found in these cases.. AVhether any of the 
foregoing bacteria are the primary cause of the condition or whether 
they are secondary invaders remains to be demonstrated. It seems 
probable that the causative factor of abortion in sows will also be 
found to be the primary cause of metritis. 

Lesions. — The uterine horns will be relaxed and dilated, owing 
to paralysis or failure of contraction after expulsion of the fetuses. 
The uterine cavity will contain variable quantities of a fluid, the 
character of which will depend upon the type of inflammation. There 
are usually fragments or large portions of the placenta within the 
cavity of the uferine horns or such mav be found adhering to the 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 203 

uterine mucosa. The external genitals are congested and tumefied. 

Catarrhal metritis is characterized by congestion and limited tume- 
faction of the uterine mucosa. The uterine cavity will contain limited 
quantities of a mucous or muco-purulent exudate. Rarely will frag- 
ments of placenta be found in these cases. 

Purulent metritis is characterized by intense inflammatory dis- 
turbance with the accumulation of pus in the uterine cavity. The 
uterine walls will be tumefied because of the extensive leucocytic 
infiltration. The infection and inflammatory process not infrequently 
extend and involve the contiguous peritoneum, producing a metro- 
peritonitis. In some eases there will be a general suppurative peri- 
tonitis. 

Septic metritis is characterized by an intense inflammation of the 
uterine walls with accompanying necrosis. The uterine cavity will 
contain quantities of a putrid fluid or semi-fluid. The uterine mu- 
cosa may have sloughed, or appear as a macerated yellowish mass. 
The uterine veins will be engorged, due to thrombic formation. 
The fallopian tubes and ovaries are frequently involved. The process 
invariably involves the pei'itoneum. Metastases and thrombic forma- 
tion may occur in any part of the body. 

Symptoms. — Catarrhal metritis does not produce sufficiently con- 
stant symptoms to be readily identified. There is a mucous or muco- 
purulent vaginal discharge. The afifected animal appears unthrifty. 
There may or may not be a rise of temperature. 

Purulent metritis is manifested by a purulent vaginal discharge. 
The affected animals eat sparingly if at all. There will be a rise 
of temperature. If the peritoneum is involved the patient will evi- 
dence pain when forced to move. 

Septic metritis has a rather sudden onset. There will be from 
4 to 6° rise of temperature. The animal will have a tucked up 
appearance. There may or may not be a discharge of bloody fluid 
from the vagina. The patient will refuse food but drinks freely. 

The course of metritis is variable. The catarrhal type may con- 
tinue for several days or weeks and finally become chronic. The 
purulent and septic types are invariably acute and the septic type 
usually terminates fatally. In some cases of purulent metritis the 
virulence of the infecting microbian agents may be overcome and 
a quantity of pus will be retained in the uterus, producing pyometra. 
Many sows that have been affected with metritis become sterile. 



204 SWINE PRACTICE 

Treatment. — The treatment of metritis in sows is not entirely sat- 
isfactory, because of the small size of the external genitals which 
makes it difficult to apply remedial agents. The most successful 
treatment consists in uterine irrigation, which may in the majority 
of cases be successfully accomplished by dilating the vagina by 
means of a speculum and carefully introducing a small tube, such 
as a horse catheter, into the cervix, then slowly injecting the anti- 
septic. The injected tiuid must be siphoned out, and it is advisable 
after the irrigation fluid has been withdrawn to inject from one to 
four ounces of grain alcohol into the uterus. It may be necessary 
to repeat the irrigation two or three times. Quinine bisulphate in 
20-grain doses injected into the axillary space and repeated in twelve 
to twenty-four hours will be found of value, particularly in cases 
of septic metritis. 

TUMORS 

Various tumors, such as fibroma, myxonui, sarcoma, epithelioma, 
and carcinoma, have been observed in the uterus. The various tumors 
partake of the same general nature as the same type of tumor else- 
where in the body. Should an antemortem diagnosis be made, and 
the tumor found to be producing considerable injury, hysterectomy 
is indicated. 

Vagina 

Cloaca formation occasionally occurs in swine. This condition 
results from fusion of the rectum and vagina, there being but one 
external opening common to the uro-genital and digestive tubes. This 
deformity does not interfere with health, but it practically prohibits 
breeding. Although it may be relieved by operation, the value of 
the animal usually does not warrant such procedure. 

Injuries to the vagina are occasionally inflicted during parturition, 
but the condition is seldom recognized and rarely causes noticeable 
after-effects. 

Inflammation of the vagina usually accompanies metritis. The 
discharge in such cases is usually purulent and the condition is 
designated leukorrhea. Vaginal douches relieve simple cases of 
vaginitis, but if the primary disturbance is within the uterus it 
must be overcome before the vaginitis will yield to treatment, 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 



205 



Vulva 

Although the location of the vulva predisposes it to injury, such 
mishaps are not common. 

Occasionally the Bacillus necrophorus infects the vulvar tissue and 
produces typical necrobacillosis, which may terminate fatally unless 
properly treated. 

Mammary Glands 

Although the mammary glands are modified glands of the skin, 
they are essential to the life of the newborn. Therefore, a discus- 




Fig. 41. INFECTION OF MAMMAKY GLAND. A, normal glaiidular tissue; B, 
calcified areas: C. galactophorous sinus. 



sion of the diseases liable to affect these glands belongs properly 
with the consideration of the reproductive organs. 

The location of the mammae of swine predisposes them to injury 
and infection of various kinds, and in addition the mammary gland 
contains a milk cistern which is also easily infected. But since swine 



206 SWINE PRACTICE 

are most resistant to infection than other domestic animals, the mam- 
mary disurbances also are less common in swine. 

CATARRHAL MAMMITIS 

Catarrhal inflammation of the mammae in sows is relatively com- 
mon, but fortunately is not severe and is therefore rarely observed 
as it occasions little inconvenience to the affected sow. 

The usual cause of this condition is retention of milk and it occurs 
primarily at weaning- time or in sows that have lost their pigs. The 
condition is usually overcome if the sow is given a limited ration 
of laxative foods without any medication. Some practitioners advise 
the use of Phytolacca in the feed in such cases and reports indicate 
that there may be some value in this treatment. 

PARENCHYMATOUS :MAM:kIITIS 

Acute inflammation of the mammary gland occurs, but is rare. 
The usual cause is infection, but this generally means that the gland 
has been injured and thus predisposed to infection. 

The affected gland is tumefied, hot, and painful. On sectioning, 
varying- quantities of milk and inflammatory exudate escape from 
the ducts. The blood vessels are gorged with blood, and the milk 
in the larger ducts and cistern contains clots. 

The affected sow refuses to allow her pigs to niirse. She will 
chang-e position as frequently as they attempt it, and occasionally 
a sow is observed that will i)urposely injure the pigs if they persist 
in their endeavor to nurse. On examination, the gland is found en- 
larged, more sensitive than normally, and if any milk is forced out 
of the teat it will be more or less ropy. 

Treatment. — Hot and cold applications alternated, when possible to 
apply such treatment, will l)e of as much value as -any local treat- 
ment. The administration of a purgative is also advised. 

PYOGENES MAMMARY ABSCESSES 

Abscesses of the mammae are quite connnon in old sows. Botryomy- 
cotic, actinomycotic and tubercular abscesses of these glands are de- 
scribed elsewhere as are the disturbances caused by infection with 
B. necrophorus. 

Etiology. — According to the investigations of Ward, the B. pyo- 
genes is the usual cause of these abscesses. It is probable that some 
previous injury predisposes to this infection. 



URO-GENITAL SYSTEM 207 

Lesions. — The abscesses are variable in size and number. In some 
eases tliere may be a single abscess, varying in size from that of a 
pea to that of a hen egg ; in other cases there may be a large num- 
ber of abscesses of variable sizes. One gland may be affected, but 
in cases of long standing lesions the abscesses are usually found in 
two or more related glands. The abscesses are usually superficially 
located. They have a distinct fibrovis capsule. The pus varies in 
color from gray to greenish yellow. In lesions of long standing the 
pus becomes caseous. In some cases the abscesses appear to fuse 
forming fistulous tracts. 

Sy))iptoms. — These abscesses appear as nodular masses beneath the 
skin. They are usually dense and resistant. In rare instances the 
abscess wall may become eroded and pus discharge. 

Treatment. — Small superficial abscesses may be dissected out in 
their entirety without damage to the gland. Large or deep-seated 
abscesses require destruction of gland tissue and in most cases it is 
probabl}' advisable to remove the entire gland. The affected ani- 
mals should be properly restrained and the surgical wounds cared 
for in the usual manner, 

NECROPHOROUS MAMMITIS 

Til is condition is described under the general type of necrobac- 
illosis. 

BOTRYOMYCOTJC MAMiNIITTS 

Botryomycotic mammitis occurs in swine, but is not common. The 
lesions are practically the same as those described for botryomycosis 
under the heading ''Sequels of Castration." Prognosis should always 
be guarded in those cases in which the mammary gland is removed, as 
a large percentage of the animals die. 

ACTINOMYCOTIC MAMMITIS 

Actinomycotic mammitis, in the experience of the writer, is more 
common in swine than botryomycotic mammitis. Infection occurs 
through abrasions of the skin surface. This condition is most com- 
mon in swine that are in pasture in stubble fields. The lesions are 
the same as lesions of actinomycosis of any soft tissue and consist 
of a dense surrounding capsule of fibrous tissue inclosing multiloc- 
ular communicating centers containing a tenacious, granular, 
creamy-white pus. The actinomycotic tumefaction may become 



208 SWINE PRACTICE 

eroded and the typical actinomycotic pus discharged. Actinomycotic 
mamniitis is characterized by the presence of the tumefaction, which 
may be round and have a smooth surface or it may be lobulated. 
These tumefactions vary in size from that of a small marble to 
masses larger than a baseball. 

Ablation of the entire tumor is the most rational and successful 
manner of combating and relieving this trouble. 

TUBERCULOUS MAMMITIS 

Tuberculous mamniitis is relatively common in swine. The infec- 
tion of the mammte may be due to a diseased condition elsewhere 
in the body or it may be introduced through wounds from the out- 
side. 

The lesions are the same as other tuberculous lesions. 

Treatment. — If the infection is localized in the mamma? the dis- 
ease may be successfully treated by operation, but the safest and 
most sanitary plan is destruction of the animal and cremation of 
the carcass, thereby diminishing tlie possibility of spreading the 
infection. 

TUMORS 

Mammary tumors are rare in swine, though an occasional papilloma 
may be observed upon the teat. Rarely do adenomas occur in the 
mammae of swine, although a few cases have beeri reported. 



CHAPTER V 

ABORTION 

Abortion is the premature expulsion of the fetus. Abortion may 
occur in swine at any time after conception and prior to the time 
of parturition. If it occurs during the later stages of the period 
of gestation, the pigs may be alive and, in some instances, may 
survive. 

PREVALENCE 

Abortion in sows has prevailed in various sections of this country 
for many years but fortunately it has not occurred extensively over 
large sections of the country. During the last few years there have 
been numerous reports of abortion in swine, and in some localities 
the condition is becoming so extensive that it is .justly causing alarm 
to the swine breeders. 

SUSCEPTIBILITY 

Abortion in swine is not confined to any particular breed and from 
the available information the age of the sow does not appear to be 
a predisposing factor, as it occurs in first breeding sows or in aged 
sows. 

TYPES OF ABORTION 

Abortion in swine may be classed as accidental, non-specific and 
specific infective abortion. Accidental abortion is due primarily 
to injuries. This type of abortion in swine is not very common. 
Non-specific abortion may be due to improper feed, but is more 
commonly caused by disease in which there is a high temperature, 
such as hog cholera. Specific infective abortion in swine designates 
a condition that has been very i)revalent recently, in which the dis- 
ease is apparently transmitted from animal to animal in a herd and 
assumes the true characteristics of an infective disease. 

CAUSE 

Certain predisposing factors, no doubt, render swine more subject 
to abortion. Generally speaking, feed and surroundings are of little 
consequence as direct factors in the production of abortion except in 
extreme cases, but improper feed, bad quarters and insanitary sur- 



210 



SWINE PRACTICE 



rouiidiiigs predispose to abortion in swine as well as in other animals. 
Non-specific abortions are eansed by liio'b temperature, toxins of 
various infective micro-organisms and perhaps by some other con- 
ditions. The specific, eansative micro-organism, if there is such, 
of infectious abortion has not been identified, although a variety of 
germs have been isolated from the aborted fetuses and uterine dis- 
charges. It is possible that a combination of organisms or different 
organisms will be found to be the general causative factors in the 
production of this disease. From the information available, it is 
advisable to consider this type of abortion in swine as infectious. 

DISSEMINATION 

Reports are available in which it has been demonstrated that an 
aborting sow may be transferred from an infected herd into a herd 
free from this disease and establish abortion in that herd. For ex- 
ample, a sow from an aborting herd was purchased in one state by 
a swine breeder in another state, the purchaser having had no previ- 
ous trouble with abortion in swine, but within six months after the 
inroduction of the newly acquired animal from the aborting herd, 
over eighty per cent of the sows in the free herd aborted. Similar 
reports seems to incriminate the boar as a disseminator of infection. 
Whether or not the boar is merely a carrier of infection, or whether 
he is affected with the disease, remains to be demonstrated. Some 
breeders are of the opinion that contaminated feed is a source of 
infection of this disease. Whether or not a premise, is relatively 
permanently infected after abortion occurs thereon has not yet been 
determined. If the causative agent or agents of this disease are 
resistant to exposure to atmospheric and climatic conditions, then 
barnyard fowls, pigeons, dogs and vermin must be considered a 
means of carrying infection. It may also be found that parasites, 
such as lice and probably also vermin, may be found to be factors 
in the spread of infective abortion in swine. 

SYMPTOMS 

Abortion usually occurs between the third and fourth month of 
pregnancy and the breeder will have no difficulty in identifying 
aborting sows. In some instances, the fetal membranes are not 
sloughed and their retention favors infection which is usually suc- 
ceeded by metritis and sometimes by the death of the sow. Sows 
that have not sloughed the fetal membranes have a distressed appear- 



ABORTION 211 

auce, arched back, inappetence or climiiiislied appetite and a bloody 
or purulent vaginal discharge. Unless the cases are properly treated, 
metritis becomes chronic and the inflammation of a purulent char- 
acter, and there will be a creamy white purulent discharge. Such 
animals are unthrifty, become more or less emaciated and fit subjects 
for the ravage of other diseases. 

Those cases in which there is more or less persistent metritis fre- 
quently become sterile. 

TREATMENT 

Preventive and control measures should be in the direction of 
improving sanitary surroundings, quarantining the aborting sows 
and care in the use of the boar. It is possible that the causative 
agent of this disease maj' soon be positively identified, and it is 
hoped that it will be feasible to produce some type of biologic agent 
that may be successfully used in immunizing against this disease. 

Aborting sows should be absolutely isolated and if the placental 
membranes have not been sloughed, uterine irrigation of salt solu- 
tion should be resorted to. It is not difficult to irrigate the uterus, 
providing a speculum is used to dilate the vaginal canal. The cervix 
of the uterus in these cases is usually relatively flabby and the irri- 
gating tube can usually be inserted. Care must be exercised in this 
flushing-out method that the uterus is not distended too severely with 
the irrigating fluid. Such patients should be given clean, sanitary 
quarters, wholesome feed and injected once daily with quinin bisul- 
phate, using 20-gram doses. 



CHAPTER VI 



STERILITY 



Sterility, impoteney or bai'reuness is inahilit}' of an animal to re- 
produce its kind. Sterility occurs in both sex. 



OCCURRENCE 

Sterility is relatively common in sows, particularly in animals that 
have aborted. It is not uncommon to find from one to six or eight 
sterile sows on the ordinary farm in the corn belt. This condition is 
not so common in boars, although an occasional case is observed. 

CAUSE AND SYMPTOMS 

Sterility in boars is usually the result of the absence of sperm cells. 
This condition is of most common occurrence in aged boars, or those 
that have been in excessive service. An occasional case of sterility 
occurs in either the male or female as a result of lack of development 
or malformation of the generative organs. 

Sterility in sows may be due to extensive accumulation of fat, a 
result of overfeeding. The most common type of sterility in sows 
occurs particularly in those individuals that have aborted and suf- 
fered from retained fetal membranes. Some sterile sows in which 
sterility is secondary to metritis may come in heat, some regularly, 
others at irregular periods, and an occasional animal is observed that 
is almost, if not, constantly, in heat. 

TREATMENT 

The correction of sterility in sows is rather difficult, as this con- 
dition, as before stated, is usually secondary to metritis and abortion. 
The first principle, therefore, in successful breeding of swine is the 
prevention of abortion and metritis. The curative treatment of 
sterile sows is possil)le, at least in some instances. If sterility is 
caused from metritis it should be overcome l)y uterint> irrigation and 
the use of quinin bisulphate, after which some of the apparently 
sterile sows will conceive. It is also advisable in those cases that do 
not come in heat to regulate the diet and administer yohimbin. 



STERILITV 213 

RETAINED PLA(;KNTA AND :\IETRITIS 

Retention of Hie placentc) jind incti'itis lias been fcpoi'ted to occur 
in sows that liave aborted. 

Tlie symptoms observed in sows consist of vaji'inal discliarge of a 
bloody tlnid, arched back, irregidar appetite and unthriftiness. There 
is frequently one to two degrees rise of temperature and there may 
be constipation. 

A careful examination should be made, confining the animal in a 
crate or improvised chute. By means of a speculum the general con- 
dition of the vaginal mucosa may be determined and frequently also 
the mucosa of the body of the uterus. If fragments of placenta, 
l)utrid discharges, or pus are present in the uterus or vagina, irriga- 
tion with hike warm salt solution is indicated. Irrigation may be 
accomplished by means of a fountain syringe, making certain that it 
is clean before using. It is advisable to repeat the irrigation every 
day or every other day until the discharge ceases. 

In treating cases of retained placenta in swine a proper diet should 
be provided and the patient placed in clean comfortable quarters. 
Laxatives should be given, preferably in the feed, using such agents 
as .raw linseed oil in one-half to pint doses or salts in one to four- 
ounce doses. The injection of 20 grains of quinin bisulphate dis- 
solved in water is of considerable value in these cases. This material 
should be injected into the axillary space or deep into the muscle 
tissue. Autogenous bacterins will be found of value in those cases 
that become chronic and in which there is a persistent discharge. 
Such sows sliould be isolated from other swine until the vaginal dis- 
charge has ceased. 



CHAPTER VII 
ANOMALIES AND DISEASES OF YOUNG PIGS 

PERSISTENT URACHUS 

The uraelius is the communicating tube of the bladder and the 
allantoic cavity during fetal life and closes under normal conditions 
at the time of birth. Persistent urachus occurs most frequently in 
males. It is evidenced by constant dribbling of urine from the 
umbilicus. 

In treating such cases it is advisable to see that the urethra is 
open. If portions of the umbilicus remain, a ligature may be ap- 
plied and thus close the urachus. This simple treatment is usually 
sufficient, providing tlun-e is no infection of the umbilical structures. 
If the urachus has withdrawn into the body cavity a suture may be 
passed around it by means of a curved needle and then ligated. 

ATRESIA ANI 

The absence of an anus is relatively common in pigs. The cause 
of this condition is not known, but apparently is due to the failure 
cf invagination of the skin to unite with the distal end of the rectum. 

An artificial anus may be made in the majority of such cases by 
making a crucial incision through the skin in the anal area, seeing 
to it that the distal end of the rectum is also incised. The triangular 
skin-flaps may be sutured to the flaps of the rectum, or they may be 
removed, as granulation tissue soon unites the mucous membrane of 
the rectum and the skin. 

OMPHALOPHLEBITIS, PYEMIC ARTHRITIS ( NAVEL ILL) 

This is an acute infectious disease of recently farrowed pigs char- 
acterized by inflammation of the uml)ili('al tissues and suppurative 
arthritis. 

Navel or joint ill has prevailed more or less extensively since the 
dawn of history. In some years this disease is responsible for the 
loss of a large percentage of the young pigs produced in certain com- 
munities. The disease occurs enzootically and as an epizootic, spo- 
radic cases being rare. 



ANOMALIES AND DISEASES OF YOUNG PIGS 



215 



Etiology.— ThiB condition is caused by infection, but the specific 
exciting cause has not been positively identified. The Staphylococcus 
pyogenes avireus has been isolated from the lesions and was ap- 
parently present in practically a pure culture. A streptococcus ap- 
pears to be the exciting cause in some eases, and in other cases the 
colon bacillus or some of its derivatives have been identified. Bacillus 
pyocyaneus sometimes causes this condition. The young animals are 
predisposed to the various types of infection by filthy surroundings 
and improper care. Some breeders claim that if the sows are per- 




Fig. 42. RACHITIS. Typical standing posture of eighteen-months" old pig 
affected with rachitis and perhaps rheumatic disturbances also. Note the 
bowed front legs and enlarged bones. 



mitted to farrow in clean quarters, and are maintained and fed in 
the proper way, that the pigs will not contract this disease. 

There is evidence of the transmission of the disease in utero from 
the dam to the foal in liorses, liut such evidence has not been ob- 
tained in swine. 

The infection gains entrance through the thrombi in the umbilical 
vessels. The infecting organisms extend in the thrombus, ultimately 
reaching the blood stream, by means of which they are disseminated 
throughout the body. 



216 SWINE PRACTICE 

Lesions. — The manifestatious of this disease are variable and de- 
pend npon the number and virulence of the infecting organism and 
their location in the body. The typical lesions consist of omphalitis 
and suppurative arthritis. Intlammation of the umbilical vessels 
may be limited or there may be an accumulation of pus, the inflam- 
mation being a typical suppuration and abscess formation. The 
lesions of the joints are variable. There may be a mild synovitis with 
limited or extensive infiltration and tumefaction of the structures 
surrounding the synovial membrane, in which case the synovia: 
membrane is injected and tumefied. There is an increased amount 
of fluid and it will be turbid and perhaps contain flakes of coagu- 
lated material. In other instances the synovial membrane will be 
distended with accumulated pus and surrounding tissues may also be 
infiltrated with pus. 

Metastatic abscesses may occur in various organs, as in the liver 
and spleen. If the infection extend to the bladder there will also be 
a purulent cystitis. 

Synipfoiiis. — The symptoms usually appear in the first week of life, 
although they may occur in the second or third week after farrowing. 
The afi^ected pigs will be lame and indisposed to move. On examina- 
tion one or more of the articulations are found to be swollen and 
sensitive, the tarsal joints being most frequently involved. There 
may be. diarrhea. The course of the disease is usually brief, the pigs 
as a rule dying on the second or third day. 

Treatment. — Curative treatment is not satisfactory. The disease 
can be controlled by the rigid application of sanitation. The farrow- 
ing houses and pens must be kept clean and all sows with affected 
pigs must be kept isolated. Some practitioners have reported good 
results by the use of a mixed bacterin, giving one or two doses to the 
sow during the last stages of pregnancy. 

RICKETS 

Rickets is a disease characterized by diminished calcification in the 
bones. This is essentially a disease of young animals. It is rela- 
tively common in pigs. Rickets is more prevalent in some localities 
than in others, and it appears to prevail more extensively during 
some years than others. Single cases may occur on a premise, but 
it is not unusual for 5 to 40 per cent of all suckling pigs on a farm 



ANOMALIES AND DISEASES OF YOUNG PIGS 



217 



to become affected. The disease is of economic importance, because 
if affected pig's are not properly treated the disease becomes chronic, 
complications arise, tlie pigs will not develop and death of a large 
percentage of the affected animals is not at all unusual. 

Etiology. — Rickets is apparently caused by disturbance of nutri- 
tion. The specific cause has not been discovered. The condition is 
the result of insufficient lime salts in the bones. Some have claimed 
that rickets occurs in animals that consume foods deficient in lime 




Fig. 4.3. RACHITIS. Showing the general attitude of the animal. Standing 
on the extreme tips of his toes makes walking difficult. 



salts. Intoxication due to digestive derangements and intestinal para- 
sitism have also been given credit for producing rickets. Still other 
investigators have maintained that rickets is due to infection. It is 
possible that disturl)ances of some internal secretion may be the caus§ 
of rickets. Improper feed and insanitary surrounding are \\n- 
(loubtedly ju-edisposing factors that should be taken into considera- 
tion in the control of the disease. 

Lesions. — The condition is not confined to any particular type or 
group of bones; however, the lesions are usually most pronounced 



218 



SWINE PRACTICE 



in the long bones of the legs, which are bent or cnrvecl, the animal 
being "bow legged." The bones are soft and so spongy that they 
may be cnt readily with a knife. The epiphyses of the long bones 
are enlarged and irregularly club-shaped, while the shaft is also 
irregularly thickened. There is a subperiosteal, spongy layer. The 
yellow marrow is red in color and is of a gelatinous consistency. 
There may be ulceration of articular surfaces, and the flat bones of 
the cranium and pelvis may be thickened and rarefied. The nares 
and mouth may be practically obliterated by the enlarged rarefied 
nasal bones and hard palate; the teeth may appear deep-set on ac- 
count of the tumefaction of the alveolar tissue. In advanced cases. 




Photo by F. F. Brown. 

Fig. 44. RACHITIS. Hind quarters badly affected. 

lesions may be found elsewhere causing disturbances of the digestive 
or respiratory system. 

Symptoms. — The first evidence of the disease is weakness, dimin- 
ished or depraved appetite, and diarrhea. But lameness or stiffness 
of gait succeeded by bending or arching of the bones is the first 
positive indication of rickets. At this stage the lying posture is 
almost continuously assumed. When the affected animals are made 
to arise they complain of pain by grunting and squealing, and not 
infrequently they will walk on the carpal joints. There may l)e 
nervous disturbances evidenced by dizziness, somnolence, and con- 
vulsions. As the disease progresses the enlarged epiphyses become 
evident and appear as a swollen condition of the articulation. Sim- 



ANOMALIES AND DISEASES OF YOUNG PIGS 



219 



ilar bony enlargements may also occur elsewhere. The bulging of 
the long bones of the front legs exerts undue pressure upon the ribs, 
which results in disturbed respiration, and the vertebral column is 
variously curved, upward, downward, or laterally. 

This disease is of a chronic nature and continues for months unless 
death intervenes early, which is exceptional. Diagnosis is not difficult 
after the changes in the bones are evident, while the chronic nature 
of rickets is sufficient to differentiate this condition from articular 
rheumatism. Tuberculous osteitis is differentiated from rickets by 




Fig. 45. RACHITIS. This illustration shows clearly the attitude of standing 
far over on the toes, particularly of the front feet. 



the limited infection and the less extensive tumefaction, and lack of 
density of the aft'ected bones. 

Rickets should be differentiated from paralysis due to disorder of 
nerve-tissue, see page 267, and osteomalacia, see page 232. 

Treatment. — Treatment of rachitic swine is advised only in the 
early stages of the disease. Those in the advanced stages should be 
destroyed. The first thing to do is to place the animals in sanitary 
quarters, then medicinal treatment consists of administering lime in 
some form. Prepared chalk may be used. Bone meal is also of 



220 SWINE PRACTICE 

value, precipitated ealeiuni phosphate is highly recoiiunended by 
some, and calcium chlorate may be found serviceable. Preventive 
measures, as proper feeding and care, practically insure against the 
occurrence of this disease in swine. 

SCOUR IN PIGS 

Pig scour is a serious menace to the swine industry. The annual 
loss from pig scour has been estimated at from seven to ten million 
pigs in the United States. INIany farmers have lost ten to twenty- 
tive per cent of their pig crop for several successive years from pig 
scour. Farms have been observed in which two hundred to two 
hundred and Hfty pigs liave died in one season from pig scour out of 
a total pig crop of not to exceed three hundred. Tlie disease has 
been proportionately more prevalent in the centers of greatest hog 
population. 

Pig scour usually occurs in relatively young pigs, the majority of 
cases occurring within the first ten days, although the condition may 
occur in six-weeks old pigs. 

Etiology. — There is apparently no single cause that is responsible 
for the various cases of scours. Unfavorable surroundings, such as 
damp, dark, and dingy hog houses, predipose to this condition. In 
some instances, mammitis of the sow is a causative factor. Improper 
foods, such as moldy or fermented slops, probably result in elimina- 
tion of injurious substances in the mother's milk that will create m 
the pigs digestive disturl)ances resulting in diarrhea. It is probable 
also that intestinal i)Hrasites may be responsible for catarrhal en- 
teritis and an associated diarrhea. Artiticial feeding is likely to pro- 
duce digestive derangement and diarrhea, and exposure to extreme 
temperature variations must be considered as a causative factor of 
pig diarrhea. 

Infection is probalily the most important cause of pig scour. No 
specific bacterium has been isolated that is responsible for all of the 
cases of infectious scour. The B.coli communis, B.suipestifer, B.sui- 
septicus, B.paratyphoid A & B are the microbian agents most com- 
monly found in these cases. The B.pyocyaneus, and various pyogenic 
micrococci are sometimes demonstrable in the discharges of atfected 
cases or in the lesions of carcasses of pigs dead of the malady. 

The rapid spread of the disease in a litter of pigs and the dissemi- 
nation from litter to litter and from farm to farm is strongly indic- 
ative of the infectious nature of pig scour. 



ANOMALIES AND DISEASES OF YOUNG PIGS 221 

Some investigators have i'ei)()rted tlie tiiidiiig of a eoeeidia that 
appeared to be responsible for the loss of many pigs in which scour 
was the principal manifested symptom. 

Lesions. — There will be soiling of the tail and hind legs. Unless 
the disease has been very acute the pig will be thin and light in 
weight for its size. The intestinal contents are usually quite liquid 
and may be putrid. Larval parasites may be present in the intestinal 
content. Areas of congestion of the intestinal mucosa may occur, 
or if the aifected pig has a subacute or chronic form of the disease, 
inflammatory disturbances and ulceration may be noted. If the scour 
has been due to irritants there will be inflammatory lesions of the 
gastric mucosa, the extent of wliicli will de]>end upon the nature of 
the irritant. The lesions* evidenced in pig scour are not definite and 
constant. 

Sjjnrpfoins. — Diarrhea is the characteristic symptom of pig scour. 
The evacuations in the beginning are pasty in consistency and of a 
gray or slate color. Later the discharges become more watery and 
have a very disagreeable odor. During this stage the pig's tail and 
hind parts become soiled. The longer the disease persists the more 
fluid and fetid are the discharges. The appetite is usually good at 
the beginning but the affected pig soon loses desire for food. The 
affected pigs evidence abdominal pain by kicking the belly, scpiealing, 
grunting and by their restlessness. They have a dejected appear- 
ance, standing with head down, tail drooping, marked tucked ab- 
domen and rough coat. They emaciate rapidly, become weak and 
die of exhaustion. 

Treatment. — If possible, remove the cause. Give proper diet to 
the sow and have clean, wholesome surroundings for the pigs. Me- 
dicinal treatment of the aff'ected pigs, particularly those depending 
entirely upon their mother's milk, is difficult. It is a good practice 
to hasten the removal of the irritating substances from the bowel, by 
the use of castor oil or similar purgative. If the diarrhea persists 
after the correction of diet and the action of castor oil, small quan- 
tities of bismuth subnitrate may be used to advantage. Intestinal 
antiseptics, such as salol and the sulphocarbolates of sodium, calcium 
and zinc, are exceedingly beneficial where they can be administered 
frequently. 

The injection of bacterins composed of the microbian agents asso- 
ciated with pig scour is of value according to the reports of some 
practitioners. 



222 SWINE PRACTICE 

Prevention of pig scour is far more satisfactory than the treatment 
of affected animals. Breeders should be advised to keep pregnant 
sows in clean quarters, particularly during farrowing time. Pigs 
may be immunized against the various microbian agents cited as 
probable causative factors in pig scour, and the practi'^e of immuni- 
zation of small pigs against scour may be the proper solution of 
overcoming the losses incidental to this malady. 

PULMONARY ASCARIDIASIS 

There has been an unusual loss of little pigs during the last few 
years, more especially during the last two years, in the United States, 
and from investigations it is apparent that these losses have been 
largely due to an embolic pneumonia of parasitic origin. Many 
swine breeders have lost fifty per cent of their pig crop, and instances 
have been recorded wiiere 80 to 90 per cent of pigs have died as a 
result of the invasion of the lung with parasites. Loss occasioned by 
these parasites is not only from the death of the little pigs but from 
the loss of condition of shotes and larger swine. 

Etiology. — The specific cause of pulmonary ascaridiasis is the larval 
form of the Ascaris suum. The life cycle of this parasite according 
to the investigations of Stewart, Ransom, and Foster, is briefly as 
follows : The ovum of the ascarid is eliminated from the adult in the 
intestine of the swine and passes out with the feces. The ovum 
incubates outside the animal body. The time recpiired for it to pass 
through the various stages and become infective depending upon the 
temperature. It requires about three weeks at a temperature of 
75° F. and two weeks at a temperature of 90° F. It w^ill not be- 
come infective when incubated at body temperature; therefore it is 
necessary for the ovum to pass out of the body of the swine before it 
successfully incubates. 

The infective incubated ova are ingested by swine on their food 
or in their drink and may be obtained by the suckling pig from the 
teat of the sow. The ova may also be obtained by rooting in infested 
pens. After the incubated ova are ingested they pass with the food 
into the stomach but are not liberated from their capsule until they 
reach the intestine. After emerging from their encysting capsule 
they begin migration into the tissues. Within four or five days some 
of them are found in various tissues but only those that reach the 
lung successfully develop, those remaining in other tissues ultimately 
perish. When the larval stage is completed the larvae pass up the 



ANOMALIES AND DISEASES OF YOUNG PIGS 223 

trachea to the pharynx and are then swallowed, and those that are 
not passed out with the feces develop to maturity in the small in- 
testine. 

Lesions. — The lesion resulting from the invasion and development 
of the larval ascarids in the lung is primarily an embolic pneumonia 
with or without abscess formation. There is usually a marked serous 
infiltration or edema of the pulmonary tissue. There may be hem- 
orrhages of variable size. Microscopically larvae may be demon- 
strated in the scrapings from the bronchial mucosa or from the 
embolic pneumonic centers. 

Symptom. — Cough, nasal discharge, unthriftiness, and impaired 
appetite are the usual symptoms manifested in an uncomplicated 
case of pulmonary ascaridiasis. These symptoms develop rapidly in 
little pigs, and if the infestation has been extensive the pig usually 
dies within four to seven days after the first manifested symptoms. 
The symptoms evidenced in pigs that are six weeks old or older are 
less intensive, and the majority of infested animals at this age re- 
cover although they will show loss of condition and do not develop 
properly. 

Treatment. — Thus far no medicinal treatment has been found that 
is of value in overcoming this condition. Inhalations of medicated 
vapors may be of some value in eliminating some of the larvae from 
the bronchial tubes and trachea, particularly in the larger pigs. 
However, the condition is easily prevented by the periodic adminis- 
tration of santonin capsules, thus eliminating the adults from the 
breeding swine, and by the rigid enforcement of sanitary regulations. 
It will be found that rotation of pastures and frequent changing of 
quarters wall be of great value in reducing the losses of pigs occa- 
sioned by the larval form of the Ascaris suum. 

Infectious Rhinitis ("Bull-Nose or Sniffles") 

Infectious rhinitis is probably a specific infective disease of swine 
characterized by inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nasal 
chambers and related sinuses and by involvement and deformity of 
the facial bones. This disease may be the same as infectious nasal 
catarrh, excepting that it is more severe and destructive. 

This condition is rather prevalent and is responsible for the loss 
of large numbers of pigs in various locations every year. The de- 
velopment of ''bull nose" has been observed in pigs that have been 
kept in pens that have been used for swine for several consecutive 



224 SWINE PRACTICE 

years, and in many instances it is fonnd that the breeding stock on 
such premises is of the same origin and tliat the affected anima's 
are inbred. As a rule, wlien tlie disease first Mi)])ears on a fai-ui 
only a few swine become affected l)ut each succeeding year the per- 
centage of affected animals increases, and by the fourtli or fifth year 
after the disease first appeared from one-fourth to one-third of the i)ig 
crop becomes affected. It is not uncommon to hnd the disease affect- 
ing swine that have been recently introduced onto the premises 
where the disease had previously existed. This fact indicates that 
the infection persists on a premise or that swine on an infected 
farm may be carriers of the infection. 

Etiology. — Filthy pens, improperly ventilated hog houses, the con- 
tinuous use of the same quarters and inbreeding are factors that 
predispose to infectious rhinitis. The Bacillus pyocyaneus has been 
suggested by Dimock as the probable cause of this disease. This 
micro-organism is usually distributed in soil and manure heaps, and 
could, therefore, readily gain access to the nasal mucosa. It can 
be demonstrated in the discharges and lesions of a large percentage 
of affected animals. 

Lesions. — In the beginning there will be noted an acute catarrhal 
inflammation of the nasal mucosa manifested by congestion and tume- 
faction. As the disease progresses the inflammatory process becomes 
purulent and there is usually a deposit of a dirty gray, sticky exu- 
date upon the mucosa. The infection may destroy variable sized 
areas of the mucous membranes. Soon after the necrosis of the 
mucosa there will be noted a bulging of the facial bones resulting 
in more or less deformity. In some cases the hard palate is forced 
downward, diminishing the oral cavity. The bulging of the facial 
bones is due to an increased volume, the result of hyperplasia. The 
inflammatory and necrotic processes extend from the nasal mucosa 
and involve the mucous membrane of the various facial sinuses and 
the conjunctiva is usually similarly affected. Affected animals are 
usually unthrifty, emaciated and small for their age. In extreme 
cases, suppurative centers may occur in the various lymph-glands. 

8y))}ptoi)is. — Sneezing is usually an early symptom of infectious 
rhinitis. There will be a water}- discharge in the beginning which 
later becomes purulent or mucopurulent. The affected swine have 
a tendency to root in their food but they eat little, consequently 
they do not gain in weight. There will also be a mucous or muco- 
purulent discharge from the conjunctiva, and the eyes may be closed 



ANOMALIES AND DISEASES OP YOUNG PIGS 225 

because of the adhesion of the lids. In the latter stages there will 
be bnlo'iiio' of the facial l)ones which interferes with respiration and 
is nsnally associated Avitli a peculiar blowing noise. 

Tlie Icugtli of duration of this disease is variable. In those cases 
in wbich there is api)arontly a marked toxemia due to the absorption 
of the bacterial products the course is relatively shorter than in 
tliose cases in whicli the disease is localized in the mucosa of t!ie 
nasal chambers. Swine that have been affected with infectious rhinitis 
for more than one year have been observed but such cases are the 
exception. 

Diagnosis. — Infectious rhinitis is frequently confounded with 
necrotic stomatitis. Necrotic stomatitis is characterized by an intense 
inflammation involving- the buccal mucosa, in which the inflamed 
membranes pass through the successive changes of congestion, tume- 
faction, necrosis and erosion, and the affected tissue has a peculiar 
disagreeable pungent odor. The lesions of infectious rhinitis are 
without odor and the progress of this disease is much less rapid than 
stomatits. Infectious rhinitis is differentiated from catarrhal rhinitis 
because of its infectious nature and is differentiated from infectious 
catarrhal rhinitis by the fact that the bones are not involved in the 
latter. 

Treatment. — Clean pens, properly ventilated hog houses, changing 
of the quarters for swine every year or every second year and proper 
selection of breeding stock will be found of value in the prevention 
of infectious rhinitis. When the disease is observed in the very early 
stages, medication Ijy inhalation of such agents as oil of eucalyptus 
may be of value, i)roviding the patients can be confined in prac- 
tically air-tight houses. It may be possible when the specific cause 
has been demonstrated beyond a reasonable doubt that a biologic 
agent may be found that will immunize swine against this disease. 
Cases in which there is bulging of the facial bones are practically 
hopeless and should be destroyed. 

STOxMATITIS IN SUCKLINGS (SORE MOUTH IN PIGS) 

The various and usual types of stomatitis, according to pathologic 
classification, have been described in the chapter on the digestive 
system and stomatitis due to the B. necrophorus is described under 
the heading of necrobacillosis but stomatitis occurring in suckling 
pigs is of such importance that a special discussion is justifiable. 

Stomatitis is suckling pigs is very common and is directly or 



226 SWINE PRACTICE 

indirectly responsible for extensive losses of pigs, particularly on 
farms where swine have been maintained for many years. This 
condition is more prevalent than is ordinarily suspected because the 
majority of swine breeders rarely report the loss of a little pig and 
they usually assume that such losses are unavoidable. Stomatitis 
is much more prevalent in pigs that are farrowed and kept in insani- 
tary pens and surroundings than in pigs farrowed and maintained 
in clean quarters and sanitary surroundings. After the disease has 
once occurred in pigs on a given farm it is prone to recur in the 
pigs farrowed on the same premises thereafter. 

Etiology. — Stomatitis in pigs is probably due to a variety of causes. 
Insanitary surroundings, improper housing and feed are important 
predisposing factors. The condition probably occurs most frequently 
in pigs in large litters because they are likely to be under-nourished 
and are prone to injure each other while attempting to nurse. Any 
abrasion will provide an avenue of entrance for various infecting 
microorganisms. 

The following bacteria have been isolated from the lesions of stoma- 
titis in suckling pigs : pyogenic micrococci, steptococci, B. pyo- 
cyaneus, B. necrophorus, B. coli communis and others. Practically 
pure cultures of any one of the foregoing microorganisms have been 
obtained from different cases of this condition. The B. pyocyaneus 
and B. necrophorus are more destructive than the pj^ogenic cocci or 
the colon bacillus. These infective microorganisms are practically 
universally distributed but probably are not capable of invading 
tissue unless they have been injured or damaged. When one pig in 
a litter becomes infected the infecting microbian agent is trans- 
ferred to the sow's teat and other pigs become infected. 

Lesions. — The lesions are as variable as the etiologic factors and 
are probably largely determined by the infecting agent. The lesions 
may occur on the lips, snout, or any portion of the mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth or tongue. The lesion associated with pyogenic 
cocci is first a hyperemic or hemorrhagic tumefied area that has a 
tendency to form a pustule; more rarely diffuse surface suppuration 
succeeds the hyperemic stage. The pus in these cases is dirty white 
or tinged with yellow. The lesion is usually quite superficial, al- 
though cases have been observed in which the submucosa or sub- 
subcutis was undetermined for some distance. 

The B. pyocyaneus produces a more extensive lesion than the pyo- 
genic cocci. The progress of the disease is rapid and tissue destruc- 



ANOMALIES AND DISEASES OP YOUNG PIGS 227 

tion extensive. There is a tendency for tliis infection to permeate 
subsurface structures and become diffuse. It appears from the cases 
observed that B. pyocyaneus has a tendency to invade the tissues of 
the snout and nasal chambers and is prone to produce the condition 
described elsewhere as "bull-nose." The pus in lesions resulting 
from B. pyocyaneus is green or greenish yellow in color. 

Lesions produced by B. necrophorous are described on page 319 
under the head of necrotic stomatitis. 

The B. coli communis may produce suppurative or non-suppura- 
tive intlammatory lesions. These lesions are usually circumscribed 
and the pus is of a dirty white color. 

Symptoms. — This condition occurs iii the first few days after far- 
rowing. Rather extensive lesions have been observed in one-day old 
pigs, indicating infection at the time of or immediately after far- 
rowing. It occurs in pigs up to three weeks of age but is not com- 
mon in pigs after they are ten days old. Affected pigs are listless; 
the}" have a tendency to remain quiet and are not active and playful 
as is the healthy pig. In a few hours or within a day or two there 
is marked depression and there may be diarrhea. If an affected pig 
is caught and carefully examined lesions will be found that are 
responsible for the condition. Only one pig in a litter may be affected 
but it is not unusual to find one-half or even the entire litter affected. 

Treatment. — By proper care and treatment it is possible to prevent 
losses of pigs from stomatitis. Every pig should be carefully in- 
spected at least once daily until ten days old by the attendant to 
ascertain their exact condition and incidentally to note any disturb- 
ance that may be overcome readily. All infected and especially 
necrotic tissue should be removed by a curette and the wound thor- 
oughly saturated with tincture of iodin. One or two such treatments 
usually is sufficient and the large percentage that recover will prob- 
ably be surprising to those who have not attempted to relieve these 
cases. Clean quarters should be provided and each sow and her 
litter should be kept separate to prevent spread of the infection. 



CHAPTER VIII 



ORGANS OP LOCOMOTION 



Sore feet Osteomyelitis (purulent) 

Fatty changes in muselc Trichinosis 

Ti, ^. i muscular Cysticercosis 

Kheumatism -I ■ ^ oi 

I articular barcosporidiosis 

Polyarthritis Tumors 

Osteomalacia 

Undei- this lieadiiiy;- will be considered the diseases of the voluu- 
tai-y muscles, bones, and joints. A great variety of malformations 
of the organs of locomotion have been observed in swine. ^lultiplicity 
of legs or duplication of portions of a leg are relatively common, and 
fusion of parts ordinarily separate is occasionally encountered. These 
abnormalities may be so adverse to the existence of the animal that 
it dies soon after birth, or the anomaly may be so slight that the 
animal is in no way inconvenienced and develops into maturity. 

Injuries of various kinds are prone to damage and possibly destroy 
the usefulness of the part aifected, and thus interfere with the loco- 
motion of the animal to such an extent that it must be sacrificed. 
Muscle wounds usually give little trouble in swine because of their 
marked resistance to infection, while fractures are not so trouble- 
some in swine as in the larger animals, and are usually repaired 
rapidly and frequently without intervention of the surgeon. 

SORE FEET 

The feet of swine that are kept on pavements or driven long dis- 
tances over hard roads become sore. This condition is attracting 
the attention of serum producers who are required by the govern- 
ment regulations to keep the hyperimmune swine on concrete or 
other similar floors. Those producers depending upon tail bleeding 
are having considerable difficulty in keeping the hyperimmune swine 
for the required time because it is difficult to keep the pens free 
from filth when bedding is used. 

Sore feet due to rough, hard roads and pens also occasion some 
trouble in swine. This condition caused more concern in former 



ORCiANS OF LOCOMOTION 229 

times, when swine were driven considerable distariees to market, than 
at tlie present time. However, it also is a problem that confronts 
tlie sernm producers. 

About the only treatment is lo pi-ovide aiii])le, clean bedding or 
turn the swine out to pasture. 

FATTY CHANGES IN MUSCLE 

Fatty changes of muscle tissue have been observed in suckling pigs 
by various investigators. This disease or condition is characterized 
by an extensive fatty degeneration of the muscular tissue of the 
entire body. The cause of this degeneration is not known, although 
it may be a sequel of inbreeding. It atfects pigs from a few days 
old to three or four weeks of age. The muscle has a white appear- 
ance, as if it had been cooked. Similar changes may also be noted 
in the lymph glands, liver, and kidneys. The atfected pigs cease 
to nurse, lie on the ground, are weak, and may have diarrhea. The 
disease almost a^.ways terminates fatally, the pigs sometimes not even 
struggling wlien they die, but in other instances convulsions precede 
death. Thus far no nu-dicinal treatment has proved of value, but 
the disease may be prevented by proper care and the frequent intro 
duction of new breeding stock. 

MUSCl^LAR RHEUMATISM 

; JuMiiiuitism may affect the muscular tissue,, but more frequ(>nti,.- 
it affects articulations in swine. 

The cause of muscular rlieumatism has not been positively iden- 
tified. No doubt undue exi)osure jiredisposes the animal to this con- 
dition, but there must also be some active cause, such as infection 
or absorbed injurious chemical sul)stances. 

Lesions. — ^luscular rlieumatism primarily affects the connective 
tissue of the muscles. The lesion consists of a serous or hemorrhagic 
infiltration between tlie muscle bundles and fibers, and rarely of 
necrosis of the intramuscular fibrous tissue. The muscle fibers are 
affected with parenchymatous or fatty degeneration, and the sur- 
rounding arterioles and capillaries are engorged. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptom consists of expression of pain, 
especially evident when the animal moves. Locomotion is interfered 
with, and there is a shifting lameness. Some cases of so-called 
paralysis resulting in dragging of the hind legs are probably mus- 
cular rheumatism. Tf the disease is sufficientlv extensive the affected 



230 SWINE PRACTICE 

animals refuse to eat. ^luseular rlieuniatisni is ditferentiated from 
trichinosis by the periodic shifting lameness of rheumatism and by 
the general absence of systemic disturbances. It may be necessary 
to distinguish it from rickets, which is not difficult, since the latter 
is a disease affecting the bones. 

Treatment. — Provide good quarters where the animal will not 
experience wide variations of temperature within a short time. Laxa- 
tives aid some form of salicylates or their derivatives are usually of 
value, but must be given judiciously to avoid impairment of digestion. 

ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM 

Articular rheumatism sometimes occurs in swine. This condition 
affects swine that have been unduly exposed, but probably the excit- 
ing cause is infection. 

Articular rheumatism is esentially an inflammation of the peri- 
articular structures, including the synovial membrane. The inflam- 
mation may be serous, fibrinous, or hemorrhagic, and in extreme cases 
it may become purulent. The exudate is accumulated in the peri- 
articular structures and occasionally in the joint cavity. The synovia 
becomes admixed with the inflammatory exudate and appears turbid, 
bloody, or purulent, and may contain coagulated fibrin ; the articu- 
lar surfaces are rough. In cases of long standing the articulation is 
surrounded by varying quantities of fibrous tissue which may cica- 
trize and cause deformity. Various articulations are affected, but 
the lesions are principally confined to the carpal, tarsal, stifle, and 
fetlock joints. 

Symptoms. — The onset of this trouble is sudden. The affected 
articulations become swollen and are very sensitive to palpation; the 
animal refuses to place weight on them or, if compelled to do so, 
expresses pain. If articulations of more than one leg are simultane- 
ously affected the animal remains lying down, arising only after con- 
siderable urging. There is usually some rise of temperature and a 
diminished desire for food, or inappetence. The disease runs a vari- 
able course, the attacks being intermittent. An attack usually con- 
tinues for about two weeks, then the animal apparently recovers, but 
sooner or later the attacks recur. 

Treatment. — The treatment for articular rheumatism is practically 
the same as for muscular rheumatism. Provide good quarters, and 
administer laxatives and salicylates. The outcome of the disease is 
uncertain, and if the animals are in butcher condition they should 



ORGANS OP LOCOMOTION 231 

be disposed of several days after the cessation of the symptoms of 
an attack. 

POLYARTHRITIS 

Polyarthritis is a name applied to a condition in which there is 
involvement of various joints of the legs. This condition has been 
quite prevalent in some sections of the country. The number of 
cases observed varies during* different years. The disease is of eco- 
nomic importance because it results in unthriftiness and therefore 
the affected animals do not develop and fatten normall3^ The dis- 
ease does not appear to be confined to any particular type or breed 
of swine and occurs equally in males and females. 

Etiology. — It has been stated, although never positively proved, 
that confining pigs on cement floors or cold damp quarters is an 
important predisposing factor. According to the findings in abat- 
toirs, there are proportionately more cases after severe winters or 
cold springs than after mild winters. The B. pyogenes has been 
claimed to be the specific cause of polyarthritis. It may be that this 
disease is a chronic condition resulting from navel infection. 

Lesions. — The lesions are variable depending upon the intensity 
and chronicity of the processes. There may be a mild inflamma- 
tion of the synovial membranes with limited or extensive infiltration 
and tumefaction of the perisynovial structures. In the early stages 
the synovial membrane is congested, and as the disease progresses 
varying quantities of fluid accumulate in the joint cavity. The 
accumulated fluid will be turbid and may contain coagulated mate- 
rial. In the later stages of the more chronic cases there will be a 
a thickening of the synovial membrane due to fibrous proliferation. 
Fibrous formation may involve consideration of the perisynovial 
structures and be sufficiently dense to render the joint immobile or 
nearly so. The articular cartilages may be eroded and there may 
be organization and fibrous proliferation within the joint cavity, 
thus rendering movement impossible. The affected animals are not 
fully developed and in the more severe cases are not in good flesh. 

Symptoms. — In the beginning the affected animals show locomo- 
tory disturl)ances and the joints are swollen and sensitive. When 
the disease has assumed the chronic form the affected animals appear 
unthrifty and there may or may not be visible enlargement of the 
joints. There will be interference with joint action. 

Treatment. — Prevention oft'ers the only solution of overcoming the 



232 SWINE PRACTICE 

losses incident to this disease. Swine sliould be properly housed and 
bedding provided to prevent contact with cold damp floors. Care 
should be exercised at farrowing time to diminish the possibility of 
navel infection. Acute cases may be relieved temporarily or pos- 
sibly permanently by hot packs api)lied to the swollen joints. 

OSTEO.MAI.ACI.V 

Osteomalacia is a disease of mature swine characterized by a decal- 
cification, softening and fragility of the bones. This disease is not 
of common occurrence in swine ; however, occasional cases are en- 
countered by practitioners. The disease is most common in sows 
and is prone to occur during the lactation period and particularly 
when the sows are being suckled by a large litter of pigs. In some 
instances several sows on tlie same farm are affected with this dis- 
ease. Osteomalacia may occur in barrows and boars, but reports 
of such cases liav(> not been recorded in available literature. 

EfloJo(j!j. — The specific cause of osteomalacia has not been deter- 
mined, but it appears to be a condition resulting from an insufficient 
amount of lime in the food tliat is capable of being assimilated. This 
disease may properly be classed as a disease resulting from malnu- 
trition. \n instances where only one animal is affected on a farm 
where several swine are maintained, it is probable that there is some 
anatomical or i)hysi()logical defect that is the primary predisposing 
cause of the condition. Wben several swine are simultaneously 
affected on a farm the feed will usually be found deficient in lime 
salts. 

Lesions. — The bones most frequently involved are those of the 
extremities, ribs, vertebral cohnnn, skull, and pelvis. The affected 
bones become enlarged and less dense, tlu' narrow cavity of the long- 
bones is increased in size and filled with a gelatinous, usually hemor- 
rhagic marrow, while the osseous tissue is less dense and more fragile 
and the periosteum separates from the bone readily. Fractures are 
very common. 

^ympioms. — The disease is usually initiated by digestive disturb- 
ances, which ai'c succeeded by emaciation, impaii-ed and usually dif- 
ficidt locomotion, fractures, and various deformities. The disease 
finally assumes a clironic form, evidencing i)eriods of temporary 
iiii|)r()vemeiil and relajjse. This is essentially a disease of mature 
animals, and this factor is of value in differentiating osteomalacia 
from rickets. The prognosis is favorable in cases showing no marked 



OUGANS OK LOCOMOTION 23:5 

ciilargenient of Ijoiies or deiorinity, and unfavorable in those eases 
showing deformity. 

'Treatment. — Provi(h' sanitary surroundings and proper food, eor- 
i-eet digestive disturbances and iidruiuister lime salts in the feed or 
water. 

PliUl LKNT ()STKO.\l\KLrnS 

Inflammation of liic l)onc nuii'i'ow occurs in swine. This condition 
is sporadic, and is most freiiucnily observed in young animals. 

Etiolocjy. — Purulent osteomyelitis is caused by infection. Vari- 
ous |)yogeiiic inicroiirganisnis ha\'e been identified, sucli as Staphylo- 
coccus pyogciu's aureus and albus. Streptococcus, and in one instance 
tlie Hacillus pyocyaneus, was isolated and ai^parently occurred in 
pui-c culture. Thci-e is probably some ])redisposing cause, such as 
hog cholera, but all of the cases observed have shown no lesions of 
chok^-a 01" otlu'i- than the primary disease. 

Lesions. — The ribs ai'e most fre(|U{'ntly affected. The bone nuir- 
row becomes hypercmic and invaded with leukocytes and inflam- 
matory i)rod\ic1s, and the intenud jiressure causes the l)one to be- 
conle enlarged and the iiuii'i'ow cavity to be increased in si/e. The 
inai-row and the inflaimnatory exudate disintegrate and form pus. 
.\s pus is produced the bone becomes larger and round, although it 
may show some ii-regiihirit ies in sha|)c. The i)us in the marrow 
cavity may erode the bone tissue and discharge, thus ])roducing a 
fistulous tract, but iiioi-e frecpieutly the pus becomes caseous and may 
!;ifcr inidcrgo calcification. Sup|)ui'at ivc processes are rarely observed 
in ot lici' bones. 

>> (J n\ plains. — Thei-e is little outward nuniifcstat ion of pui-ulent 
osteomyelitis other than the formation of a ban-el chest (the ribs 
foi-m a wider arch, the thoi-ax appearing almost round in cross-sec- 
tion), and the prominent tmnefied I'ibs. if the affected animal is 
in good condition the I'ibs arc not visible. These cases arc usually 
of long stiinding, and the disease is essentially chronic. Antemortem 
diagnosis is rai'cly made. Purulent osteomyelitis can be distinguished 
fi-om osteonudacia by the localization of the process in the ribs. 
Treat iiient. — Medicinal ti'catment is of no value. 

'rWM'IIINoylS 

Ti'ichinosis assumes two forms, intestinal and muscular. Both 
types occui- in the sjinu" animal, the intestinal pi'cceding the mus- 
cular form. 



2o4 SWINE PRACTICE 

This disease is quite i)revaleiit, partieiilarly in Nortli America. 
From two to eight per eeiit of American hams imported into Ger- 
many have been found infested. The disease is less prevalent in 
Europe, or at least the statistics so indicate. 

The cause of trichinosis is the Trichinella spiralis. This is a small, 
round worm, the adult rarely exceeding one-twelfth of an inch in 
length. The life cycle of the parasite is as follows: 

The larva' gain entrance to the digestive tract in meat, wlierc the 
surrounding capsule is dissolved by the digestive juices, and tlr.is 
are liberated within twenty-four hours. They pass into the small 
intestine, where they beeome sexually mature in about three days. 
About five days after coi)ulation, or within ten or twelve days after 
ingestion, the j)regnant female and the male are found in the crypts 
of Lieberkiiini and the female begins to deposit her young in the 
form of living embryos. This process is continued by tlie fema'e fr-r 
from six to eight weeks, during which time she produces from eight 
to fifteen thousand young. A few of the embryos pass out with 
the feces, but most of tlicni pass through the tissue of the intestine, 
some of them gaining entrance to capillary lymph and blood vessels, 
while others wander through the tissue. Those passing into the 
lymphatics ultimately reach the blood stream, as do those passing 
directly into th(^ blood capillaries, and fiimlly they are distributed 
by the blcotl or by direct migration to all i)arts of the body. The 
embryos thus distributed pass into various tissues, but as a rule only 
those entering the muscular tissue survive and develop. The embryo 
matures into a larva in the muscle in a period of about two months; 
by this time the irritation produced has resulted in the forxiiation cf 
a capsule. These encapsulated larv^^ will retain their vitality in 
swine for a period of about eleven years, but the capsule and some 
of the interior of the cyst undergo calcification, the process begin- 
ning about one or one and a half years after encapsulation. 

Swine become infested by eating trichinous fiesh of pigs, rats, oi- 
other animals, or from eating the excretions of infested animals. AM 
breeds of swine, regardless of age, are equally susceptible. Triclii- 
ncsis is most ])revalent in swine ke]")t in small i)ens, especially when 
sanitation is not observed. 

Lesions. — The adults ])roduce an intestinal catarrli which is mosi 
evident in tlie ])roximal portion of the intestine. Soon after the 
embryos begin to migrate the mesenteric lymi)hatic glands become 
enlarged, and there may be pulmoiuiry congestion and parenchym- 



ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION 



235 




Fig. 46. Single liool^s of a dangerous measle worm, greatly enlarged. 

(Ostertag.) 





Fig. 47. Musculature of hog with measle 
worms appearing on the cut surface. (Os- 
tertag.) 



Fig. 48. Pork 

measle worm with 
protruded scolex 

slightly enlarged. 
(Ostertag.) 



236 



SWINE PRACTICE 



atous degeneration of the liver and kidneys. The affected muscle 
first becomes swollen, and appears of a gray color. About eight 
weeks after the embryos begin to migrate, small gray or grayish- 
white specks may be detected in the muscle tissue. This condition 
is especially evident in the diaphragm, intercostal muscles, muscles 
of the cervical region, and tongue. If the lesions are of long stand- 
ing they will contain calcium salts, which may be detected as small, 
gritty masses. Microscopically, in the first year of muscular trich- 




Fig. 49. CYSTicKKcosis ( Fork Measles ). 
cellulosae. 



A, muscle: B, fat; C. cysticeicus 



inosis the larvae can be readily detected as small, coiled, thread-like 
worms within a capsule. 

Symjitoms. — Clinical trichinosis lias been observed only in experi- 
ments, or at least the disease has not been recognized by the clinician. 
Experimentally, intestinal Iridiinosis becomes evident in from three 
1o six days after infestation. Tlie disease is manifested by the fol- 
h»wing syiiiplonis: inapix'tencc, Noniition, diari'liea. colic, arclied back, 
unwillingness lo move, and rapid emaciation. Evidence of muscular 
trichinosis appears in about two weeks, and is manifested by the fol- 
lowing symptoms : rubbing against posts or other objects, stiffness, 



ORGANS OP LOCOMOTION 



237 



assumption of the lying posture the greater part of the time, dyspnea, 
dysphagia, and rise of temi)eratiu-e. These symptoms, in the order 
mentioned, continue for four to six weeks, and the affected animal 
apparently recovers. Diagnosis of trichinosis may l)e possible clini- 
cally, but the absolute diagnosis depends upon a microscopic detec- 
tion of the parasite. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment may be of some value in elimin- 
ating the adults from the intestine, but the disease is rarely diagnosed 
before death. The muscular form of the disease is not relieved by 




Fig. .50. Section of a meady liog tongue. (Ostertag.) 



treatment. Proi)liylactic measures, such as general sanitation and 
eradication of rats, should be instituted. 

CYSTICERCUSIS (mEASLEs) 

Cysticercosis is a condition due to the invasion and development 
of the cystic form of a tapeworm. This condition prevails more or 
less in the swine of practically all countries. Cysticercosis in the 
muscular tissue of swine is due to the cystic form of the Taenia 
so'iKm, the cystic form of tliis parasite being designated Cysticercus 
cellulos?e. 

Etiolomi. — The life cycle of the TcCnia solium is as follows. The 
ovum of tlie adult, whicli resides in the intestinal tract of man, is 
eliminated in the feces. Swine eat the contaminated feces and the 



238 



SWINE PRACTICE 



digestive juices dissolve the shell of the tapeworm ovum and liberate 
a six-hooked embryo. The embryos bore through the walls of the 
stomach, some of them entering the blood vessels, and are thus dis- 
tributed by migration and the circulation of the blood to all parts of 
the body. Those deposited elsewhere than in the muscular tissue 
do not as a rule develop. The development of the parasite is rather 
slow. The embryo assumes the form of a cyst and in twenty days' 




Fig. 51. Section of a measly hog heart. (Ostertag.) 



time is about the size of an ordinary pinhead. By this time the head 
of the future tapeworm is visible as a mere point. About two months 
after the embryo lodges in the muscle it has attained the size of a 
small pea, and in three months the embryo has matured, as is evi- 
denced by the presence of sucker disks and a rostellum of booklets 
on the head of the future tapeworm. Sliould a human being con- 
sume inicooked swine flesh containing one of these mature bladder 
worms the digestive juices would dissolve the capsule and liberate 
the scolex which would attach itself to the intestinal mucosa. From 



ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION 



239 



three to five months are required from tlie time of ingestion of the 
bladder worm by the human until ripe segments are eliminated. 
One ripe segment contains from ten to thirty tliousand ova. 

Swine become infested by ingesting water or food contaminated 
with the ova of the Tasnia solium. This condition occurs only in 
hogs that consume human excrements and young swine are more 
susceptible to this condition than are the aged animals. 

Lesions. — The presence of the cysts typiiies Cysticercus cellulosje. 
These cysts vary in size from visible points to small beans. They 
are usually oval in shape, and the scolex can readily be recognized 




Fig. 52. PKUUNCULATEO l-IBROMA. 



within as a white point or body. Tlie cyst is surrounded by a thin 
capsule and contains one head and a thin, watery fluid. After the 
cyst has persisted for one year or longer it degenerates, the content 
becoming purulent, and later calcifying. 

Sijnipto}iis. — Cysticercosis in swine is rarely recogniz'^d clinically. 
The migration into and irritation of the muscle may cause muscular 
soreness and disturbed locomotion which, depending upon the extent 
of the invasion, may be associated with inappetence, unthriftiness, 
and emaciation. 

Treatment. — Prophylaxis consists of preventing contamination of 
swine food and water with human excrements. No curative treat- 
ment is available. 



240 SWINE PRACTICE 



SARCOSPORIDIOSIS 



Sare'ospoi'idiosis is a disease of mviseular tissue due to a parasite, 
tlie Sarcosporidia. This couditiou is rc^latively eominoii in swiuc. 
Generally speakiii<;\ sarcosjjoridiosis is not considered a disease of 
mueli importanee in swine. No doubt the eneysting of the parasite 
produces a myositis and should the heart beeome extensively infested, 
fatal myocarditis may result. 

Ktiohxju. — The Sarcocystis miescheria is the cause of sareospori- 
diesis. The exact life eyele of this i)arasite is unknown. 

Lesions. — The cysts are usually so small that they eannot be de- 
tected without the use of a microscope. However, an unusual speci- 
men was obtained by York at an abattoir in Chicago in which the 
cysts could be readily detected as grayish-wliite ovoid patches. Micro- 
scopically, the parasites are found within the muscle sarcolemma. 
They appear to destroy or displace the muscle substance, the fiber 
being entirely severed, the sarcolemma alone remaining intact. The 
sarcocysts contain many I'ound or oval bodies, the sporozoi'tes. The 
cysts undergo degeneration and calcify, but at what age these changes 
occur has not been determined. 

Sijmptorns. — The disease has not l)een recognized clinically, but no 
doubt infestation would interfere with the muscle function. 

Treatment. — Thera})eutic treatment is not available, and in the 
absence of a detinite knowledge of the life cycle of the parasite, pre- 
ventive measures are only problematic. General sanitation should 
be maintained. 

tlt:\iors 

An occasional tumor is encountered that has invaded the muscular 
or osseous tissue of swine. But, generally speaking, tumors of these 
structures are of little significance. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE SKIN 

Erythema Parasites 

Freezing Fleas 

Hemorrhage Lice 

Urticaria ^r 1 Sarcoptie 

Mange L 

Impetigo [ Demodectie 

Eczema Ticks 

Dermatitis granulos.i. Ringworm 

Tumors Tumors 

Diseases of the skin are prol)al)ly not so common i'l swine as in 
ether domestic animals. Because of the location of the skin it is 
subject to a variety of injuries of various kinds, but fortunately 
;;wine are not very susceptible to wound infections and therefor:' 
cutaneous lesions heal promptly and with little inconvenience to the 
attlicted animal. 

ERYTHEMA 

Erthema is a name applied to the condition resulting from con- 
gestion of the skin. It is quite common, particularly in swine having 
little or no pigment in the skin. It is also a common condition in 
some infections diseases, such as swine plague and hog cholera. 

Etiology. — Simple erythema in swine is most frequently the result 
of sunshine but may be due to contact with some irritant. In some 
instances erythema may be caused by ingested chemicals that have a 
special selective action on the skin or are eliminated by the skin. 

Lesions. — Engorgement of the superficial vessels and redness are 
the only demonstrable lesions. 

Symptoms. — Redness, and perhaps pruritus, are the principal 
symptoms. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause, and the disturbance will cease to 
exist. 

Siiiihunt 

Swine having little pigment in the skin are injured by sunlight. 
In some sections it is not profitable to raise white pigs because of 
Ihie irritation of tlu^ skin by the sun and the production of dermatitis. 



242 SWINE PRACTICE 

Sunbiirniiig' is a type of dermatitis eliaraeterized by erythema, 
tumefaction, and desquamation of the supertieial layers of the epi- 
dermis. In long-continued cases the skin becomes thickened, due 
to the formation of tibrous tissues. Swine affected with dermatitis 
do not thrive, and they evidence a harsh skin and bristly coat. 

Treatment. — The treatment of these cases is simple, as about all 
that is required is to shield the animals from the direct light of the 
sun. Should the inflammatory process be well marked, cooling anti- 
septic solutions may be applied. 

FREEZING 

Pigs farrowed in midwinter in the northern portion of the tem- 
perate zone, where not properly housed, are frequently frozen. The 
ears and tail are most affected because of the large surface exposure 
and distal location where the circulation is diminished. In some 
instances the tissues are destroyed l\v the low temperature, and slough, 
while in other cases the ears or tail, or both, are frosted only and 
an inflammatory reaction is established resulting in an engorgement 
and tumefaction of the part. Later the skin desquamates and the 
parts are tender wdien palpated. 

Transportation of market hogs in open stock cars during very cold 
weather is responsible for the freezing of the surface skin. The skin 
sometimes evidences the lesions in strips corresponding to the open- 
ings between the boards on the car. The lesions are similar to those 
described in small pigs. 

Treatment. — This consists of protection against further freezing 
and tlip local application of protectant dressings, as in ordinary 
wounds. 

HEMORRHAGE 

Cutaneous hemorrhage in which the extravasate is retained in the 
skin is relatively common but is practically always associated with 
specific diseases, seldom occurring as simple cutaneous hemorrhage. 

URTICARIA 

Urticaria is a skin disease characterized l)y the formation of pru- 
ritic wheals. It is not common in swine and when occurring is 
usually found in young pigs. 

Etiology. — Urticaria is of systemic origin. It is usually associated 



THE SKIN 243 

with digestive derangement, but may be caused by tilth and the irri- 
tation caused ])y lice. 

Lesions and SjjHiptonis. — The typical lesions are red, circumscribed 
blotches that are hot and pruritic. Because of the in'uritis the pig 
rubs the skin and may produce abrasions from which serum and 
blood may escape. The disease usually terminates in recovery on the 
second or third day, although in severe cases pustular formation may 
follow. 

Treatment. — Clean the swine and premises, and administer a saline 
purgative, such as Epsom salt. 

IIMPETIGO ( MEASLES ) 

Impetigo is a condition in which there is an eruption of papules or 
pnstules. The pustules may rupture soon after eruption or become 




Fig. 5o. Hog affected with urticaria. (Ostertag. ) 



desiccated, forming a crust or scab. This condition is commonly 
erroneously called measles. 

This condition is relatively common in pigs in some sections of the 
ITnited States, particularly in the southern states. It has been ob- 
served in range swine as well as in swine that have been kept in small 
feed lots. An individual case may be observed but it more commonly 
assumes the form of an infection and from 5 to 80 per cent of the 
pigs on a farm or range will become atfected. The disease is rarely 
fatal but is of economic importance because the animals that are 
atfected do not develop properly and persist as small dwarfs or runts 
regardless of the fact that they may be given an abundance of the 
best quality of feed. 

Etiology. — The specific cause of this condition has not been deter- 
mined. Various pyogenic micrococci have been isolated from the 
local lesions, but these micro-organisms may be found upon the skin 
of normal swine and thev mav therefore be considered of secondary 



244 SWINE PRACTICE 

importance. Bull has reported the finding of pyogenic micrococci 
and streptococci and the B. enteritidis from the tissues and blood of 
affected animals. This disease may exist as a primary condition or 
it may occur simultaneously with hog cholera, infectious necrotic en- 
teritis and other diseases. 

It is possible that parasites, such as lice, fleas, mosquitoes, gnats 
and flies, may be factors in the causation of this disease. Filaria may 
also be of some importance in the production of impetigo. 

Lesions. — The first evidence of the disease is the appearance of 
small elevations on the skin, which may be irregularly scattered over 
the body, head and legs, but are most commonly observed on the belly, 
behind the shoulders, on the inner side of the thigh and on the under 
surface of the neck. These elevations may contain a small droplet 
of pus or appear as typical papules. In either case the superficial 
epithelium desiccates and may descjuamate leaving a denuded surface 
from which small quantities of serum escape, dry and form scabs. 
When the superficial epithelium does not desquamate it becomes im- 
pregnated with the escaping serum which desiccates and forms a 
scab. Several elevations may converge forming areas one-half to 
two-thirds of an inch in diameter. The scabs may cause depilitation 
and the lesions maj^ destroy follicles so that an affected animal's coat 
is irregular and fiea-bitten in appearance. 

S(ifinptoms. — Impetigo is manifested in the beginning by a papular 
or pustular eruption and later by the accumulation of scabs and more 
or less depilitation. There is usually more or less pruritus in the 
early stages of the disease. Affected animals are unthrifty in ap- 
pearance and become emaciated and do not grow or develop. The 
local lesions persist for several days; the scabs ultimately slough, 
leaving a small scar. In some cases the hair follicles that were in- 
volved in the lesions are permanently injured and there will be ab- 
sence of hair. 

Treatment. — No satisfactory method of treatment has been found. 
Various solutions have been used as dipping agents but they have 
not proved of value. Laxatives may be of some service and it is pos- 
sible that autogenous bacterins may prove valuable as a curative 
agent. 

ECZEMA 

Eczema is an inflammation of the skin characterized by multiform 
lesions. Though this disease occurs in swine, it is not very prevalent. 



THE SKIN 245 

Etiology. — Eczema in swine is apparently a disease of filth. Weak, 
anemic pigs are much more snseeptible than strong and otherwise 
healthy animals. The specific exciting canse is not known. 

Lrs'ons and Sywpionis. — Typical eczema is cliaracteri/.ed by the 
following lesions, which occur in the order mentioned : erythema and 
papulovesicular eruption, which may or may not be succeeded by the 
formation of pustules. The contents of the vesicles and pustules 
become desiccated and accumulate, thus forming scabs. There is 
pruritus practically throughout the entire course of the disease. As 
the disease progresses the skin becomes thickened, leathery, and 
cracks, the crevices or rliagades extending deeply, more or less blood 
escaping. 

Eczema is differentiated from parasitic dermatitis by the absence 
of the parasites. It is essentially a chronic disease ; there may be 
repeated attacks. The disease as a rule is not fatal in swine. 

Treatment. — Remove all influences that predispose to the condi- 
tion. Prevent injury from rubbing. Topical applications of soothing 
agents may be used, but their value is doubtful. See that the animals 
obtain and digest their food properly. A good, brisk purgative occa- 
sionally will be of value. 

DERMATITIS GRANULOSA 

A granular skin eruption has been identified in swine. The con- 
dition occurs in patches on the ears, back, and croup, and is probably 
infectious. 

This condition has responded quickly to treatment with antiseptics. 

NECROBACILLOSIS, ACTINOMYCOSIS, TUBERCULOSIS 

Necrobacillosis is a very common cutaneous disease in swine. 
Cutaneous actinomycosis and tuberculosis occur less frequently. These 
conditions of the skin will receive consideration under the special 
topics of necrobacillosis, actinomycosis, and tuberculosis. 

TUMORS 

Cutaneous tumors, excepting papillomas or warts, are not common 
in swine. 

Papillomas are structurally hypertrophied papillas. They may 
occur on any portion of the skin surface, but are probably more 
common on the muzzle and on the inner surface of the thigh. 



246 



SWINE PRACTICE 



Papillomas or warts are usually harmless and may be removed 
by sui'g'ical procedure. They shoidd be removed in their entirety, 
either by means of a knife or a paii- of scissors. 



I'lGIMENTED MOI.E 



These are relatively common and in some cases they become malig- 
nant, probably as a I'esnlt of ii-ritation incidental to treatment. These 



/ 




Fig. 54. Ei.EPH.^.XTiAsis. A, Granular papiilcmatous. depilitatcd area3; 
B. rhagades, or rre\ices. 

moles are sometimes ])i«>'mented with melanii!, and when interfered 
with develop into mali«>'nant melanosarcomas. Many pioinented papil- 
lomas and papillo-fibromas are also encountered in tlie skin of swine, 
wliile multiple fibromas have been observed, they are not at all 
common. Move rarely have primary or even secondary carcinomas and 
epitheliomas been recorded as cutaneous tumors in swine. 

PARASITES 

Swine harbor many cutaneous parasites, some of which are ex- 
ceedingly detrimental to the health of the animals. 



THE SKIN 



247 



Screiv Worm 

Of the dipterous group oue only, the Campsomyia macellaria 
(screw- worm), requires special mention. In some sections these 
parasites cause considerable damage and some fatalities. The larva; 
only are parasitic, the adult female depositing the ova in wounds 
or damaged tissue. Tlie ova hatch in from one to ten hours and 
immediately begin to burrow into the surrounding tissues. The fully 
developed larva? are about one-half an inch long and about one- 
third the diameter of a lead pencil. The damage consists not only of 
mechanically lacerating the tissues but also of carrying infection 



^:'t'' 


. 


^' 


M 


^As.N 




'^KKSm^^ ' f 


^^^^Bs^^ 1 


"•^ T^R^^^^H 


P/ 



Fig. .■)."). i-KiMiMii) Moi K. Showing an ovoid pigmented area, with an ir- 
regular nodular surface and containing a few long hairs. These pigmented 
areas or moles cause little or no inconvenience unless irritated by drugs 
or surgical interference. 

into the surrounding tissues. The larvae remain in the tissue from 
four to six days, then drop to the ground, where they undergo the 
pupal metamorphosis. 

The time-honored treatment consists of curetting the wound, thus 
removing all the larvae possi))U'. It may be necessary to apply cldoro- 
form or some i)enetrating antiseptic to cause the larva* in the deeper 
tissues to migrate to the siii-face, or at least to move energetically 
in order that they may be located aiul removed. Tlie wound should 
be properly dressed and protected against future infestation. It is 



248 SWINE PRACTICE 

always well to observe the wound on the second day to make certain 
that all larVcC have been removed. However clinicians report that 
this line of treatment is wholly ineffective, claiming better results 
are obtained from the treatment for screw-worm infestation given on 
page 198. 

Flea Infestation 

Representatives of the order, Siphonaptera, constantly inhabit liog 
houses and pens in some sections of the country. These parasites are 
blood suckers and obtain their nourishment directly from the swine, 
but do not appear to cause any serious trouble. No doubt they pro- 
duce some irritation where they pierce the skin, and swine thrive 
better in their absence. Fleas breed in filth, the ova being deposited 
in fecal matter or other filth. The larval and pupal stages also take 
place in filtli and in the soil, the entire cycle from adult to adult 
requiring about one month. 

Fleas may be lessened in number and ultimately eradicated from 
most premises by persistent cleanliness and by dipping the swine 
in some standard dip every ten days for a period of six weeks. 

Loiisiii ess ( Pli th iriasis ) 

Phthiriasis, or lousiness, is the most common parasitic disease of 
swine. The hog louse, Ilematopinus suis, is a blood-sucking louse 
and one of the largest of known lice. The adult ovigerous female 
cements the ova on the hair behind the ears, in the flank region, and 
elsewhere. The ova hatch into small lice in from ten days to two 
weeks. These lice do damage by direct abstraction of blood and by 
irritatif n of the skin, which causes more or less pruritus. This makes 
the swine restless and, not receiving their proper rest, they probably 
do not do as well as they otherwise would. 

It is not a difficult matter to eradicate lice, but their permanent 
elimination from swine entails continued vigilance. Where large 
numbers of swine are infested the most economical plan is to put in a 
dipping vat and dip the hogs every ten days for three or four dip- 
pings. In the meantime the sleeping quarters should be cleaned and 
dipping solution used here as a spray. If there are only a few swine 
to treat, hand dressing with some standard dip is the most economical 
method of treating them, or if the swine have a tank or place where 
they wallow, some dipping solution may be placed therein. The swine 
thus dip themselves and destroy the lice. 



THE SKIN 



249 



Tlie rubbing- post has been used with fair success as a means of 
holding louse infection in check. One or more posts are set in pens 
and ropes wound tightly around them for a distance of two feet from 
the ground. These ropes should be moistened with crude petroleum 
from time to time. The swine will annoint themselves and destroy 
most of the lice by rubbing themselves against these posts. 

Mange 
Mange, or infestation of swine with some Acari or mange parasites, 




Fig. 56. Male hog louse. (Farm- 
ers' Bull. 1085, Dept. Agri.) 



Fig. 57. Female hog louse and 
egg attached to hair. (Farmers' 
Bull. 1085, Dept. Agri.) 



is not a rare condition in this country, where two forms of mange 
occur — sarcoptic and demodectic. 

Sarcoptic Mange 

Sarcoptic mange is enzootic in certain sections. It is caused by 
infestation with the Sarcoptes scabiei, var. suis. The life cycle of 
this parasite is as follows : 

The ovigerous female burrows into the skin, forming galleries in 
which she deposits her eggs, usually about fifteen in number. The 
ova hatch in from five to ten days into six-legged asexual larva? which 
may remain in the galleries or pass out under the scabs, and in two to 



250 



SWINE PRACTICE 



three days moult into nymphti?. The nymphie have four pairs of legs, 
but they have no sexual organs. In two or three days the nymphie 
moult and the sexually matured males and females come forth. The 
sexually matured parasites mate, and in about three to five days the 
ovig-erous female is found in the gallery in the skin, ovulating. Thus 
the entire life cycle does not exceed twenty-five days, and under the 
most favorable conditions may l)e accomplished in fifteen days. From 
each ovulation about five males and ten females are produced, and if 
the reproduction were to go on unhindered for three months, the total 




Fig. 58. Saiccptic mange mite. Female. Magnified 100 times. (Farmers' 
Bulletin 1085. Dept. Agri. ) 



reproduction would approximate 1,500,000 parasites. The adults are 
mere specks, barely visible to the unaided eye. 

Swine become infested from infested i)remises or from infested 
swine. Premises may remain infested for six months or even longer. 

Lesions. — The lesions produced by the 8arcoptes are practically con- 
fined to the skin; howevei-, stH-oiulary lesions, as emaciation, may arise. 
The parasite obtains tis.sue juice by i)ricking tlie skin with its stylet. 
The stylet injury i)r()duces erythema, succeeded by the formation of 
vesicles, which rui)ture, the vesicular Huid drying and forming a scab 
beneath which the parasites are found. Scabs are of varying thick- 
ness, and accumulate wherever the parasites are found unless the 



THE SKIN 



251 



affected animal rubs them off. ({alleries are formed within the skin, 
and this also adds to the irritation. The accumulated dry scabs break 
and damage the hair more or less, which falls, leavino- the parts affected 
practically hairless. The irritation causes intlammation, and this 
results in fibrous i)roliferation and thickening of the skin. The thick- 
ened, leathery skin loses its pliability and becomes fissured or cracked. 
In long-continued eases the animals become emaciated. 

Symptoms. — Intense pruritus, especially around the ears and eyes, 




Fig. 59. Case of advanced hog mange showing wrinlcled condition of 
.^ skin. (Farmers' Bull. 1085, Dept. Agri.) 

and the finding of papules, vesicles, and scabs are the first evidences 
of scabies. Later there is depilation and thickening of the skin, with 
the accompanying rhagades. The disease will i^robably affect all the 
swine that have been kept in one h)t. Tlie finding of the ])arasite is 
positive evidence upon which to base a diagnosis. 

Treatment. — Sarcoptic mange may be successfully treated by the 
use of the lime and suli)hur dip or nicotine dip. repeating every ten 
days for three dippings, ])rovided that the quarters are cleaned and 
disinfected and the thick scabs are removed so that the dipping solu- 



252 



SWINE PRACTICE 



tion may gain access to the parasites. Some old chronic cases do not 
respond readily, if at all, to treatment because of the thick, M^-inkled 
skin which protects the parasite. 




Fig. 60. Advanced hog mange showing pedicle-like scabs. 
Bull. 10S5, Dept. Agri.) 



(Farmers' 



Demodectic Mange 

Demodectic or red mange is not so prevalent in swine in America 
as is sarcoptic mange. Red mange rarely occurs enzootically. 

The cause of red mange is the Demodex folliculorum, var. suis. 



CIRCULATORY ORGANS 



25:{ 



This parasite is not visible to the unaided eye. Microscopically, it is 
found to be similar in shape to an oat grain and has four pairs of 
short legs. The life cycle of this parasite is practically the same as 




Fig. 61. Convenient I rough for vaccinating swine. 



of the Sarcoptes scabiei, var. suis, except that the ova are deposited 
in a pustule in the hair follicles and sebaceous glands instead of in 
intradermal galleries. 



254 



SWINE PRACTICE 



Lesions. — The skin of the legs of swine is most frequently affected. 
The parasite gains entrance to the hair follicles, where it produces 
inflammation and causes dejiilation. The intiamuiatory reaction causes 
a redness of the skin, hence the name. In a case of long standing the 
skin is red, thick, wrinkled, cracked, practically hairless, and evolves 
a peculiar characteristic odor. The disease extends slowly upon the 
animal body, and it is not uncommon to find only one animal affected 
in spite of the fact that there are many swine in the same pen. 




■yw^-jv. ^aigL-y»« ^^iPMCT^JtaCETnaaBaiM^ 



Fig. 62. Pig showing effect of follicular mange, evidenced by a thicken- 
ing and wrinkling of the skin. Small pustules and reddening of the skin 
also characterize this disease. 



Positive diagnosis can be made only by identifying the parasite micro- 
scopically. 

Treatment. — This condition is j)ractically incurable, at least in so 
far as our present knowledge is concerned. Aft'ected animals should 
be sent to slaughter, as this condition docs not impair the meat for 
food. If for any reason the animal is to Ix' kept upon the premises, 
it should be placed in rigid quarantine. 



CIRCULATORY ORGANS 



25."i 



Tu'l: f iiffsfdfioii 

liitVstatioii of swine willi licks, pMil iculfii'ly tiie ear ticks ( (Jniillio- 
dorus meo'iiini), has attracted tiie attention of some southern swine 
breeders. These ticks locate in the (wternal ear and produce irritation 
whieli annoys tlie infested animals. Tliey may be remoA^ed by pouring 
into the ear some alcohol, dilute antiseptic or bland oil. 




Fig. 6;'>. Hog wallow of conc"ete. (Farmers' Bull. lOSo, Dept. Agri. ) 



Thread Worm Infestation 

Cutaneous infestation by Filaria may occur in sw'ine, but it has not 
been positively identified. 

Rhuj tconii Infestation 

Rarely does ringworm occur in swine. The condition is caused by 
a Trichophyton. 

Lesions. — The lesions are usually located on the back or the outer 
surface of the thighs and are seen as isolated, circumscribed, round, 
red spots with a raised margin which bears small vesicles. The central 
portion appears normal, except that it is scaly. The trouble gradually 



256 SWINE PRACTICE 

extends in all directions, the raised vesicular margin representing the 
outside of the lesion. A¥lien the lesion becomes very large the center, 
or original lesion, has a])])arently recovered. The disease is trans- 
mitted by actual contact. 

Treatment. — Cleanse the affected parts and apply a five-percent 
solution of creolin, repeating the treatment on the fourth or fifth day. 



CHAPTER X 

CIRCULATORY ORGANS 

Heart Blood-vessels 

Hemorrhage Anemia 

Fatty changes Leukemia 

Dilatation Spleen 

Pericarditis Necrosis 

Endocarditis H^ypertrophy 

Tumors Tumors 
Parasites 

Diseases of the circulatory organs may be of common oecurcn.'c 
in swine, but such disturbances are rarely recognized clinically. 

Heart 

HEMORRHAGE 

Hemorrhages of small size are frequently found in the heart muscle. 
These occur in infectious diseases and are the result of bacterial 
emboli or injury of the capillaries by cliemic substances incidental to 
infection. They are of significance to the meat inspector and the diag- 
nostician. 

Subendocardial hemorrhages are common as a sequel of infectious 
diseases. They are of diagnostic value and are an indication to the 
uK'at inspector of some infectious disease or septic intoxication. 

FATTY CHANGES 

Fatty changes in the heart muscle occur in practically all swine 
that have been fattened for market. The fat particles are found 
between the muscle cells at first, but later the cells become infiltrated 
with fat. The heart is enlarged, is paler in color, and its density is 
diminished. No visible symptoms are evident, in the majority of 
these cases the swine being excessively fat and refusing to move about 
without urging. No treatment is required unless this condition arises 
in a breeding animal. 



258 



SWINE PRACTICE 



DILATATION 

Acute dilatation of tlie lieart lias been observed in fat hogs in which 
sudden death occurred. Tliis condition is prol)alily tlic result of 
fatty changes in the myocardium. 

PERTCAKOrnS 

Pericarditis, both acute and chronic, fibrinous and purulent, occurs 
in relation with hog cholera, swine plague, erysipelas, tuberculosis 




Jialve.s of a 

sectioned 

t'Chinococci 



Fig. 64. Hog heart with echinococci. (Ostertag.) 

and rheumatism and more rarely as a primary condition. A few cases 
of traumatic pericarditis have been observed in swine. C'ases of peri- 
carditis are rarely diagnosed clinically because of the difficulty of 
making a careful examination of the heart. 

tu:mors 

Various tumors have been observed upon the pericardium and also 
in the myocardium. They are of no clinical significance, but are of 



CIRCITLATORY ORGANS 



259 



interest to inspectors, as the presence of malignant tninors is con- 
sidered sufficient evidence for condemnation. 



PARASITES 



The pericardium rarely harbors the cystic form of the Tienia 
echiuococcus, but Cysticercus cellulosa? is of common occurrence in 




Fig. 65. Heart with tuberculous proliferations on the outer surface. 

(Ostertag.) 

the myocardium of swine. The lesion has the same general appear- 
ance as it does in voluntary striated muscle. Sarcosporidiosis is not 
uncommon in the heart muscle of swine. 

Acute pericarditis is characterized by hyperemia and hemorrhage. 

Endocarditis has been observed b.v inspectors and in diagnostic 
autopsies, but the disease is not ordinarily recognized by the clinician. 



260 SWINE PRACTICE 

The lesions found usually consist of vegetative growths or denuded 
areas upon the endocardium, covering the valves. Either condition 
is always associated with infection, and it is not difficult to demon- 
strate bacteria in the lesions and exudation upon the serous lining 
of the pericardium. The serous surface of the pericardium will have 
lost its luster and the exudate may adhere to it in shreds. The 
pericardium becomes thickened in clironic pericarditis, due to the 
formation of fibrous tissue. 

CHRONIC ENDOCARDITIS 

(Valvular Insufficiency) 

Chronic valvular disease is not uncommon in swine. The valves of 
the left side of the heart are most frequently afit'ected. Autopsy of 
such cases usually reveals vegetations on the mitral valves, myocardial 
hypertrophy, edema of the lungs and in extreme cases ascites. Vjd- 
vular disease is usuall}^ manifested by capricious appetite, dyspnea 
of varying degree and edema. 

Blood- Vessels 

Diseases of the blood-vessels of swine have received very little con- 
sideration,, though a few cases of aneurism have been recorded. 
Thrombosis has been observed in a very few instances. Inflamma- 
tory disturbances have not been reported, or at least the available 
literature contains no records of such affections. Phlebitis has been 
observed by serum producers. This condition has occurred in the 
ear veins, but has not been of sufficient importance to occasion any 
losses. 

Blood 

Diseases of the blood of swine have received very limited consider- 
ation up to the present time. 

ANEMIA 

Werner reported his observation of anemia in swine that had been 
fed watery slop food, while Braasch observed anemia in suckling 
pigs, but was not successful in identifying the cause. The usual 
lesions of anemia consist of lack of blood, paleness of the various 
tissues, emaciation, and a jelly-like consistency of the fat. The 
affected animals are depressed, weak, and gradually become emaci- 



CIRCULATORY ORGANS 261 

ated. Later edematous swellings occur in the dependent parts of 
the body. 

LEUKEMIA 

A few cases of leukemia have been observed in swine on postmortem 
examination. The exact cause of disease is unknown, but it is prob- 
ably of an infectious origin. 

Lesions. — Porcine leukemic cases thus far observed are of the lym- 
phatic type. The lymph glands become enlarged, due to hyper- 
phisia of the lymphoid tissue, and there are frequently necrotic cen- 
ters. By scraping the cut surface of a lymph gland a milk-white 
fluid is obtained. The spleen contains leukemic centers and is en- 
larged, and the liver may be similarly affected. 




Fig. 66. Spleen cf hog with a part of the gastrosplenic ligament and 
cmentum. (Ostertag. ) 

Cases of leukemia have not been studied clinically. The disease 
is chronic in nature. 

Spleen 

The spleen is subject to hemorrhages and is engorged in hog 
cholera and in other septicemic diseases. 

NECROSIS 

Necrosis of the spleen is of common occurrence in swine that have 
died as a result of injection of a virus containing the Bacillus necro- 
phorus. These centers vary in size from that of a dime to a tifty- 
cent piece, are grayish-white in color, and usually have a raised 
border and depressed center. There may be only one or two of 
these necrotic foci, or the spleen may be full of them. 

HYPERTROPHY 

Hypertrophy of the spleen is rather common. The condition occurs 
in leukemia, tumor formation, and in swine that are fed excessively 
and in paratyphoid infection. 



262 SWINE PRACTICE 

TUMORS 

Sarcomatosis is a relatively common condition in the spleen. The 
majority of the cases observed were primary, bnt secondary splenic 
sarcomas do oecnr. The tnmor is nsnally multiple, the foci varying 
in size from mere points np to masses as large as a hen's egg. The 
centers are white or grayish-white in color, and are rather firm. 
They are nsnally circnmserilied with a thin, fibrous capsule. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Sunstroke and heat-stroke Paralysis 

Lightning stroke Chorea 

Epilepsy Cerebral hyperemia 

Eclampsia Parasites 

Diseases of the nervous system of the various domesticated animals 
liave not been sufficiently investigated for a good description to b- 
given of them. This is particularly true in regard to diseases of th 
r.crvous system in swine. 

Malformations of the brain or spinal cord are common in swine. 
They are observed principally by the breeder and in small pigs, as 
the majority of these malformations are of such a nature that the 
affected animal dies soon after birth. Cranial and spinal clefts, with 
associated hernia of the meniiiges, brain, or spinal cord, are the most 
. ommon deformities. 

Functional disturbances of the brain, sueh as delirium, are some- 
times observed, but this condition is not common. It is usually the 
result of organic disease of the brain, although it may be caused 
by intestinal parasites. The affected swine champ their jaws, grunt, 
run against the fence, posts, or similar objects, tremble, and may 
even bite. When the cause is removed the animals make a speedy 
recovery, although succeeding attacks may occur. 

Viciousness is closely associated with delirium. This condition is 
dependent upon the nature and temperament of the animal and is 
manifested by a desire to attack man or other animals. Vicious swine 
bite, and boars use their tusks to inflict injuries, and are sometimes 
successful in disemboweling their victim. Viciousness is inherited 
or acquired, and vicious swine should never be used for breeding 
purposes. Viciousness is acquired by swine that are nervous. Such 
swine soon become irritable, then vieious, as a result of teasing or 
brutal treatment. One instance is recalled of a nervous sow that 
became vicious because the owner's son irritated and tantalized her 
by catching her small pigs, carrying them squealing, around the pen. 



264 SWINE PRACTICE 

Tlie best method to pursue in cases of viciousness in swine is to pre- 
pare them for slaughter and market them as soon as possible. 

SUNSTROKE AND HEAT STROKE 

It may be possible to differentiate between the sunstroke and heat 
stroke in man, and possibly also in horses, but such a distinction is 
scarcely warranted in swine. 

Etiology.— Sunstroke if it occurs in swine is caused by the rays 
of sunlight acting upon the nerve-cells of the brain. Heat stroke, 
overheat, heat exhaustion or hyperthermia are the result of ther- 
molysis. Swine, especially when in condition for slaughter, are pre- 
disposed to overheat because of the excessive accumulations of fat. 

Driving swine in droves is occasionally accompanied Tjy cases of 
heat stroke, and this may also be observed in carload lots in which 
the swine are crowded and the shipment made in extremely hot 
weather. The same condition arises in swine that are hauled in 
wagons, if proper precautions are not taken. Lack of proper shade 
predisposes the swine to sunstroke and to heat stroke. 

Lesions. — The gross lesions that characterize overheat are prac- 
tically the same as asphyxia and consist of parenchymatous degen- 
eration of all essential structures as liver, kidney, heart and volun- 
tary muscle. The blood is usually dark, and does not coagulate 
readily and the veins are engorged. The lungs are usually engorged 
with venous blood. There may be ecchymotic cardiac hemorrhages. 
^Microscopically, the nerve cells are found to contain coagula, and 
there may be cloudy swelling of all parenchymatous tissues. 

Symptoms. — Uncertain gait, dullness, depression, increased respira- 
tion, and anxious expression are the ])rincipal symptoms observed in 
the early stages of these conditions. The temperature may be very 
high. Muscular tremors, falling to the ground, and convulsions are 
the final symptoms. The course of the disease is short. In some 
instances the animal succumbs within a few minutes after the onset; 
in other cases the animal may live for from one to three days, and 
in rare instances may recover. 

Treatment. — Place the animal in a shady spot, give rapidly diffus- 
able stimulants, and apply cool but not cold water over the body, 
and if possible, use ice packs on the head. 

LIGHTNING STROKE 

Lighting stroke sometimes occurs in swine, particularly among 
those ill pasture. The lesions of lightning stroke are not well marked. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 265 

Burning of the surface and irregular congested streaks may be ob- 
served. Tissue hemorrhage may or may not occur. The carcass of 
an animal dead from lightning stroke putrefies rapidly. 

Swine that are struck by lightning may be instantly killed or 
they may be rendered unconscious or only temporarily stunned. Those 
that are not killed will show unsteadiness of gait, and they may 
even be unable to walk. The animals that are not killed instantly 
usually make a speedy and complete recovery. Little is required in 
the way of treatment. The affected animals should be made com- 
fortable and, if necessary, stimulants should be given. 

EPILEPSY 

Epilepsy is a nervous disorder characterized by sudden temporary 
loss of consciousness, with partial or general convulsions. Some 
authors doubt the occurrence of true epilepsy in swine; however, 
cases of a nervous disorder with characteristic symptoms of epilepsy 
have been observed. It is possible that true epilepsy does not occur 
in swine, but when these animals are closely confined or when infested 
with parasites characteristic epileptic attacks do occur. The type 
of epilepsy that occurs in swine may be properly termed reflex 
epilepsy. 

Etiology.— Epilepsy is a functional disorder and may be the result 
of a variety of causes. Parasitic infestation of the digestive tract 
is a common cause of this disorder, particularly in young pigs. 
Invasion of the brain with echinococcus is sometimes responsible 
for attacks of epilepsy. Auto-intoxication is probably an important 
factor in some cases of epilepsy. Cut hair or other concrements are 
frequently found in the stomach of swine that have had attacks of 
epilepsy. There is apparently some relationship between the sexual 
function and epilepsy as attacks sometimes occur in young boars at 
the age of puberty and in gilts during the estrual period. 

Lesions. — The disease is primarily a functional disorder, and there 
are no lesions that are constant and can be said to be accountable 
for the seizures of epilepsy. 

Symptoms. — The attack may be sudden, especially in young pigs. 
They may come to the feed trough, eat a few mouthfuls, back up, 
fall over, lose consciousness and lie kicking and champing their jaws. 
The affected pig soon gets up, moves about with an imcertain gait, 
has staring eyes but soon regains consciousness and although there 
mav be some indication of weakness is otherwise normal. There may 



266 SWINE PRACTICE 

also be defecation, urination, and discharge of semen. The seizures 
are of short duration, rarely exceeding' five minutes. The attacks 
may occur in rapid succession, or considerable time may elapse be- 
tween attacks. 

Treatment. — Treatment is of no practical value, except to remove 
the cause when known. Tlie affected animals should be destroyed if 
the seizures are frequent and severe, or in mild cases the animals 
should be prepared for market. They should never be fused for 
breeding, as the condition apparently is hereditary. 

ECLAMPSIA 

Two conditions may be conveniently discussed under this caption, 
viz., dentition eclampsia and puerperal eclampsia. 

Dentition eclampsia. — This condition is relatively common in pigs. 
It is no doubt freciuently confused with epilepsy. The usual cause 
of dentition eclampsia is irritation due to the eruption of teeth. 
The symptoms evidenced consist of nniscular twitching, champing 
of the jaws, rolling of the eyes and eonvulsions, but the affected 
animals retain consciousness. These cases may be relieved by placing 
the affected pig in warm water, and the attacks may be prevented 
by lancing' the g'ums. 

Puerperal eclampsia. — This disease is sometimes observed in sows 
at the time of, or soon after parturition. The condition may be 
caused by auto-intoxication or uremic poisoning. There are no defin- 
ite lesions of puerperal eclampsia. The symptoms of this condi 
tion consist of muscular tremors, tonic or clonic muscular spasms 
and convulsions, but the affected animals are apparently conscious. 
When this condition occurs during parturition it may be overcome 
by effecting delivery promptly. Chloral hydrate in half ounce doses 
injected into the rectum is serviceable in overcoming the spasms. 
Fluid extract of veratrum viride in 15-drop doses injected intra- 
muscularly is claimed by some practitioners to give splendid results. 

PARALYSIS IN PIGS 

Paralysis in pigs is a relatively common condition and is respons- 
ible for extensive losses. It has been more prevalent, or at least 
more cases have been reported, in the last ten years than it was 
previous to that time. This condition should not be confused with 
rickets, eclampsia, or cases of lameness. Paralysis occurs in all kinds 
of swine xegardless of breed or their physical condition. One type 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 267 

of this disease, according' to Wehrbein, occurs only in pigs up to 
six months of age and usually affects more than one pig in the same 
litter. 

Etiology.- — This condition does not appear to be the result of any 
one specific causative agent. In some instances the disease on a farm 
or community occurs in pigs from one particular boar. Inbreeding 
may be a factor in the causation of pig paralysis. Tuberculosis of 
the vertebral column may produce symptoms that cannot be readily 
differentiated from paralysis. Parasitic invasion of voluntary mus- 
cular tissue, spinal cord or nerves may produce paralysis. Malnu- 
trition may also be an important factor in paralysis. The disease 
is not infectious, or at least experiments in which blood and nerve 
tissue were injected into susceptible pigs proved negative. The dis- 
ease has not been transmitted by contact of affected and susceptible 
pigs, which is further evidence of its non-infectiousness. The causa- 
tive agent exerts an influence on the motor nerves. 

Lesions. — The lesions found in those cases in which there is a tuber- 
cular infection are characteristic of tuberculosis. In the cases of 
paralysis due to tubercular infection there is usually involvement 
of the vertel)ra, resulting in a rarefying osteitis and diminishing of 
the lumen of the neural canal and usually pressure upon the spinal 
nerves and spinal cord. In typical cases of pig paralysis there are 
no gross lesions. Microscopically the motor nerve-fibers are found 
to be involved. The fibers degenerate and there is a fibrous prolifer- 
ation between the nerve-fibers. The extent of the degeneration and 
fibrous proliferation varies in different cases and also in different 
stages of the disease. These changes are designated as polyneuritis 
parenchymatosa. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms evidenced in some cases consist 
of disturbances of locomotion. The affected animal may appear stiff 
and knuckle over and it will weave or wabble and may fall to the 
ground. In other instances the onset of the disease is rapid, the 
first indication being paralysis and inability to arise. The affected 
animals are unable to stand even though they be raised to their feet. 
The paralyzed pig will assume the decubital position with little con- 
cern and apparently without discomfort. They will have a normal 
appetite and may even develop, though usually less rapid than nor- 
mal pigs if feed and drink is provided. Their temperature remains 
nrriral \niless some complication arises. Defecation and urination are 
usually normal. 



268 SWINE PRACTICE 

The paralysis usually involves the hind legs, though in some in- 
stances the front legs may be affected. An occasional case has been 
observed in which both the front and hind legs were simultaneously 
affected. After the disease has progressed for some time the mus:'les of 
the affected portions become tense and hard. Complications due to 
the constant decubitus usually develop in the course of time and the 
aff^ected animal dies. 

Treatment. — Paralysis due to alterations in the motor nerves is ap- 
parently incurable. Inbreeding and inheritance are factors in the 
cause of paralysis, and the condition may be prevented by outcross- 
ing and eliminating all breeding animals in which a noticeable per- 
centage develop the disease. Medicaments excepting general tonics 
or laxatives as indicated are apparently of little or no value. If the 
aifected swine are in good condition it is economy to slaughter them 
before complications arise, as the paralysis does not damage the meat. 

CHOREA 

Chorea is a neurotic condition characterized by rapid contractions 
of muscles or groups of muscles. 

Etiology. — In many instances chorea appears to be purely func- 
tional. Some have attributed it to thrombosis; toxic substances may 
be a factor in producing it, and in some cases malnutrition pre 
disposes and possibly excites the condition. 

No constant tissue change has been identitied with chorea. 

Symptoms. — Twitching of muscles or group of muscles more or less 
continuously except during sleep characterizes chorea. The disease 
may be outgrown in the course of one or two months, or it may be- 
come chronic. 

Treatment. — Various drugs have been recommended to relieve this 
condition, but the best plan is to destroy pigs that have aggravated 
cases, and to fatten and market those having mild attacks. 

CEREBRAL HYPEREMIA 

Hyperemia no doubt occurs in the brain and meninges of swine, 
but such cases have received meager clinical investigation. A few 
cases of purulent cerebritis, or stag'gers, have been observed. Some 
of these cases were caused by wormeaten, moldy corn, or at least no 
new cases appeared after changing the feed. The cerebral tissue was 
affected and the lesion consisted of a liquefying necrosis, the necrotic 
area usually occurring in relation to the lateral ventricle and being 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 209 

unilateral in the cases investigated. The liquefied neerotie tissue was 
grayish red in color and usually represented an area about the size 
of an English walnut. The affected swine were generally dull in 
the beginning, but in one case observed the animal was excitable 
and delirious. Swine affected with cerebral hyperemia usually evi- 
dence an unsteady gait and may fall to the ground and show symp- 
toms of convulsions. One case was observed that turned in a circle, 
jumped up from the ground, and performed other antics. 

Treatment. — Treatment is of little value after the brain substance 
has become necrotic. In the very early stages drastic purgatives 
may be of value, particularly if the cause lay in the provender. 

PARASITES 

Karely does the Cysticercus cellulosae develop in the brain of swine. 
The cyst does not develop as readily in the brain as in a muscle, and 
it is the exception to find a matured cyst in the nervous tissue. The 
symptoms produced will depend upon the location of the cyst in 
the brain. 



CHAPTER XII 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Hog cholera Anthrax 

Swine plague Tuberculosis 

Infectious necrotic enteritis Swine erysipselas 

Necrobacillosis Rabies 

Paratyphoid infection Foot-and-mouth disease 

Salmonellosis Tetanus 

Malignant edema 

Hog Cholera 

Hog cholera is a specific septicemic disease of swine characterized 
by parenchymatous degeneration and more or less hyperemia and 
hemorrhages of various tissues of the body. It is infectious and 
contagious. 

Geographical distribution. — The first indentified outbreak of hog 
cholera in the United States occurred in Ohio in 1833. From this 
original center it has spread widely and now prevails more or loss 
continuously in very state of the Union as well as in the surrounding 
countries, including the island possessions of the United States. The 
disease was positively recognized in England in 1826, and it still 
prevails there. In 1896 approximately one-third of the swine j)opu- 
lation of England died of cliolera. Tlie disease was introduced into 
Denmark in 1887, and spread into Sweden the same year. It also 
appeared in France in 1887. Hog cholera, or a very similar disease, 
appeared in Germany in 1866, Prussia, Austria, and Hungary were 
invaded in 1895. From all reports, it is apparent that hog cholera 
prevails in practically every country in which swine are maintained. 

Hog cholera was first investigated systematically in America in 
1885, under the directions of Salmon. The disease was thought, and 
apparently proved at that time, to be due to a short, rod-shaped 
bactei'ia. 

De Schweinitz and Dorset further investigated the disease in 1903, 
and the Bureau of Animal Industry have continued their investiga- 
tions up to the present time. 

Extent. — Information obtained from various sources indicates that 
hog cholera has been prevalent in America for the past fifty years. 



PLATE I. 








Fig. 1 



A ^ 4 >■ 







\ \' 



.3 n 



«t1|» 







Fig. 2 




Fig. 1. Normal skin and skin showing red blotches 
characteristic of hog cholera. 

Fig. 2. Serous surface of intestine, showing sharply 
outlined petechial hemorrhages, due to hog cholera. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



271 



The average annual loss in the United States for the past four decades 
probably exceeds $30,000,000 annually, and in 1897 the losses due 
to this disease alone approximated $100,000,000. During the years 
1912-13, a severe epizootic of hog cholera extended throughout the 
principal hog-raising section of the United States, the loss being 
excessive and for the country at large amounting to over $100,000,000 
each year. In 1913 there were 61,178,000 swine in the United States, 
of which ten to fifteen per cent died of cholera. The losses from 




Fig. <n7. Hog cholera (Early Stage). 



hog cholera in 1912 in Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri ex- 
ceeded 3,000,000 hogs valued at $30,000,000. The losses in Iowa 
alone for the years 1911-14 exceeded $10,000,000 annually. 

The mortality from hog cholera in the United States in 1914 was 
approximately ten per cent, but was reduced to less than four per 
cent in 1919 by the combined efforts of the Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry, various state live stock sanitary officials and veterinary prac- 
titioners. 

Hog cholera is no doul)t the most surely fatal disease of swine in 



272 



SWINE PRACTICE 



America, and at this time it is the most important disease econom- 
ically in the United States. 

Etiology. — Tlie cause of ]io<>' cholera is attributed to a filtrable 
virus. The relation of a tiltrable virus to hog cholera was first 
recognized by l)e Schweinitz and Dorset in 1904, and similar investi- 
gations by Boxymeyer of Alichigan were also concluded in 1904. Other 
investigators have verified the findings of De Schweinitz and Dorset. 
The virus of hog cholera occurs in the blood and therefore in prac- 




Fig. 68. Acute hog cholera (Advanced Stage). 



tically all the tissues of the body of an infected swine. One to two 
cubic centimeters of filtered blood serum from swine affected with 
hog cholera will produce typical symptoms of this disease when 
injected subcutaneously, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, or 
intravenously into a healthy, susceptible pig. The symptoms become 
evident in from five to seven days after the inoculation. 

Recently it has been reported by some investigators that the filtrable 
virus of hog cholera has been successfully cultivated artifically and 
it has been further indicated that the cultivation of it may become 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



273 



practicable for the production of hyperimmiiniziiig virus in the near 
future. 

Hog- cholera virus is ultraniicroscopic and passes through por- 





Fig. 69. Heart showing tissue hemorrhages due to hog cholera. B, 

Hyperemic areas. 



celain filters. The virus retains its virulence in fluids at room 
temperature for from two to three months, but is destroyed by heat- 
ing to seventy degrees Centigrade for one hour. When dried it be- 
comes more resistant to the influence of high temperature. At the 



74 



SWINE PRACTICE 



temperature of an ice box the virulence of the virus is retained for 
many months. It is very resistant to dilute solutions of phenol, cor- 
rosive sublimate, and chinosol. Tlie length of time the virus may 
remain virulent on infected premises lias not yet been determined, 
but it easily survives a single winter. Certain bacteria including 
one spirochete may be factors in predisposing swine to the filtrable 
virus. These various microbian agents are also responsible for com- 
plications of hog cholera. 




Fig. 70. Hearts. A. showing acute inflammation of the auricle and 
hyperemic areas in the ventricle, a common condition in hog 
cholera; B. normal. 



The Bacillus suipestifer is no doubt a faetor in the production of 
secondary lesions and some of the complications of hog cholera. 

Bacillus suisepticus is frequently demonstrable in the carcasses of 
swine that have died of hog cholera. This organism is the causative 
agent of swine plague, and will receive proper consideration in the 
discussion of that disease. Suffice to say, it is frequently an a.s- 



PLATE II. 




Fig. 1 



Fig. 2 



Fig. 1. Thrombosis of the Hver, showing red and 
white thrombi and thrombi in which decolorization is just 
taking place. 

Fig. 2. Lung showing hemorrhagic areas due to hog 
cholera. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



275 



sociated infection with the filtrable virus, the disease resulting being 
a mixed infection of hog cholera and swine plague. 

Spirochfeta suis has been investigated by King and Hoffman. 
Their experiments indicate that this micro-organism is of constant 
occurrence in swine affected witli hog cholera and further that they 
could be demonstrated in intestinal lesions in swine in which pure 
cultures had been used to induce disease. 

From the foregoing it will be noted that there has been some con- 
tention as to the specific cause of hog cholera. 




Fig. 71. Mucous membrane of the intestine. A, normal; B, sliowing 

effect of chronic inflammation due to hog cholera; C, typical 

hog cholera ulcers. 



Predisposing causes. — The various mierobian agents aforemen- 
tioned are important factors in predisposing swine to the filtrable 
virus. Many cases have been observed, particularly in stocker swine 
that have been immunized against hog cholera in public markets, 
of so-called "serum breaks" in which the symptoms and autopsy 
findings indicated that hog cholera was a factor in causing the death 
of what were thought to be cholera immune swine. These accidents 



276 SWINE PRACTICE 

are apparently due to a primary infection with either the B. suipesti- 
fer, B. snisepticns, B. eoli coinmnnis, enteritidis and possibly some 
other mierobian agents separately or in various combinations, thus 
diminishing the resistance of the swine and the virus used in the 
simultaneous immunization, which under normal conditions would 
be harmless, actually i)roducing fatal hog cholera. Similar conditions 
have arisen when swine atfected with infectious necrotic enteritis 
or swine plague have been simultaneously immunized on farms. 

Other predisposing causes of hog cholera are : Age : young animals 
generally speaking are more subject to hog cholera than mature 
swine. Sex: excepting mature boars, either sex or barrows are 
equally susceptible to hog cholera. Old boars may not become af- 
fected on farms where practically all other swine die of hog cholera. 
Breed: all breeds of swine are equally subject to hog cholera. The 
mule foot hog has been claimed to be relativel}' immune to hog cholera 
but these claims are not justifiable. Pure-bred and cross-bred swine 
as well as scrubs and razor backs, all contract cholera. Season : 
Cholera prevails throughout the year, although it may be more pre- 
valent in the spring and fall, probably because in those seasons the 
pigs are at the most susceptible age. Condition of pens: Swine 
maintained in filthy pens are not so resistant to hog cholera, other 
things equal, as are swine kept in clean sanitary quarters. Water 
and feed : Swine are more likely to be healthy if supplied clean 
wholesome water and feed than if required to drink stagnant filthy 
water and consume musty or spoiled foods and, therefore, more re- 
sistant not only to hog cholera but also other diseases. Parasites : 
Parasites deplete the body and therefore swdne infested with para- 
sites are more susceptible to hog cholera than swine that are free or 
relatively free, from parasites. Effect of previous disease: Pig scour, 
navel ill, necrotic stomatitis and other diseases deplete the body and 
render swine more subject to the action of the filtrable virus. 

Sources of infeciiou. — The original source of the virus of hog 
cholera like the origin ol other viruses and pathogenic agents, is un- 
known. The following are the principal present sources of the 
filtrable virus of hog cholera : Infected swine, the nasal, ocular and 
fecal discharges and the urine from infected swine, the carcasses of 
swine dead of cholera, garbage containing scraps of pork, virus used 
in simultaneous immunization ; food, water, vehicles of transporta- 
tion, stockyards, and other substances or objects that are contami- 
nated with discharges of infected swine, or the tissues, juices or 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



27' 



})r()dnets of the carcasses of swine that were infected with the filtrable 
virus when killed or in which death resulted from cholera. 

From the foregoing the ease with which infection is transmitted 
may readily be comprehended. The virus is transmitted from an 
infected swine on non-infected i)remises to other swine, or to soil, 
food, water, bedding, and general surroundings, thus practically in- 
suring infection of exposed swine on the same premises and other 
premises as well. Serious outbreaks of cholera are sometimes trace- 
able to the introduction of a new boar, or other animal, that is 
infected. 

If the carcass of a swine dead of cholera is permitted to remain 



-ae*!!©*. 




A B 

Fig. 72. Lymph-Nodes. A. normal; b. hyperemic due to hog cholera. 

in tlu' liog lot. other swine will become infected by eating the flesh, 
and the soil and surroundings will be contaminated with the virus. 
Some men have shown their faith in the protection of swune against 
cholera with serum by putting the carcass of a swine dead of cholera 
in their pens and thus infecting their premises. 

From the lack of care in the use of virus in producing a perman- 
ent immunity there is little doubt but that farms have become in- 
fected. Food hauled in wagons or other vehicles that have been 
previously used in transporting cholera-infected swine may become 



278 SWINE PRACTICE 

contaminated and infect iiealtliy, snsceptible swine and thus pro- 
duce hog cholera. Water, too, is fre(iuently the source of infection. 
This is especially noticeable in the spread of hog cholera in sections 
of country in which there are many small streams. Such enzootics 
usually follow the streams. The contamination of surface water is 
due to the discharges, and even to tlie carcasses of cholera-infected 
hogs being washed by rain into the small streams. ^lany liog raisers 
have fenced and made pastures of low lands with small streams of 
water, thus favoring the introduction of infection into their herds. 
The shipment of cholera infected hogs to market centers has been 
of common occurrence, althought there is a federal law prohibiting 
the shipment of swine alfected with an infectious disease. By such 
shipments stockyards, stock cars and the railroad right of way be- 
come contaminated with discharges of cholera-infected swine, and 
the chances are that some of the discharges contain the virus of hog 
cholera in a sufficiently virnlent form to produce cholera in healthy, 
susceptible swine. By this means cholera is, no doubt, frequently 
transported hundreds of miles, and new centers of infection pro- 
duced. 

Federal regulations require the cleaning and disinfecting of cars 
that are known to have been used to transport cholera-infected hogs 
to market. This regulation diminishes the spread of infection, but 
in some shipments the disease is not identified until the hogs are 
slaughtered, and in many instances the cars in such shipments are 
not located and are consequently not cleaned and disinfected. By 
the practice of shii^ping cholera hogs to market, practically all public 
stockyards become infected and therefore become a source of danger 
in the community. The cholera infected swine are hauled or driven 
from the farm to the railroad station along or over the public road, 
whicli thus becomes a source of infection. The virus may adhere to th? 
feet of horses, to the wheels of wagons or other vehicles, and be trans- 
ported to farms where infection had not before been present. 

The possibility of virus carriers of hog-cholera infection must be 
admitted, although no definite cases have been identified. It is 
generally conceded that swine immunized simultaneously do not 
eliminate the virus unless they become visibly sick with cholera and 
therefore there is always a possibility of establishing infected centers 
by simultaneous immunization. 

Dogs, crows, bnzzards, and pigeons are scavengers, and are im- 
portant factors in the dissemination of infection. Neighbors visiting 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



279 



back and forth and exchanging labor are prolitie means of carrying 
infection from place to ])lace. Careless veterinarians have in some 
instances apparently been responsible for the transmission of liog 
cholera from infected to non-infected premises. 



Ileocecal 
valve 




Fig. 73. Large intestine of hog showing small lentil-sized ulcers, a cou- 
dition frequently associated with hog cholera. ( Ostertag. ) 

The possibility of insect transmission of the filtrable virus sliould 
not be* overlooked. According to experiments conducted by the 

Button-like sloughing of the mucosa Ulcers of the mucosa 




Fig. 74. Large intestine of hog showing extensive alterations, a con- 
dition frequently associated with cholera. (Ostertag.) 



Bureau of Animal Industry and reported by Dorset, hog cholera 
was transmitted by house flies that had consmned the nasal or ocular 
discharges of cholera infected swine and were then transferred to 



280 SWINE PRACTICE 

healthy susceptible swine where they were permitted to walk and 
feed upon their eyes. 

Manner of infection. — Hog cholera may be transmitted by direct or 
indirect infection. Direct infection may be affected by the actual 
contact of a healthy, susceptible swine with one affected with cholera. 
Direct infection may also occur in utero, the pigs becoming infected 
before birth. This statement may be questioned by some, but the 
fact that pregnant sows abort when they become affected with hog 
ciiolera is common knowledge among swine breeders. It lias also 
been observed that abortion is of freciuent occurrence in pregnant 
sows that are simultaneously immunized. The transmission of the 
virus from the sow to the ]iig in utero would not seem difficult when 
it is remembered that this virus I'eadily passes through porcelain 
filters. 

Indirect infection also is of common occurrence in hog cholera. 
This is accomplished by the infection being introduced on food stuff', 
ill water, in the inspired air, or on foreign bodies, such as splinters 
or stubble. Indirect infection is infection that occurs when new cen- 
ters are established without the introduction of a diseased animal. 

Susceptihilitij. — Young swine are apparently most susceptible to 
cholera immediately after weaning. However, swine of all ages may 
become affected. Thus sucting pigs or old bi-ood sows or boars may 
contract cholera and die of its effects. 

Channels of entrance of the infection. — The virus of hog cholera 
most fre(pieiitly gains entrance to the body of the swine by way of 
the digestive tub, upon contaminated food or water, or in various 
substances that swine are likely to chew or ingest. Infection may 
also be introduced through the respiratory tract, but infection by 
this avenue of entrance is not common. The virus may be introduced 
through the skin by means of barbs, awns, splinters, or similar ob- 
jects, but this avenue of entrance is not common in natural infection. 

In the production of a i)ermanent immunity by the use of the 
virus and serum, the virus is introduced through the skin by a hypo- 
dermic syringe. Injection for the jourpose of hyperimmunizing, in 
the production of anti-hog cholera serum, is done intravenously in 
an ear vein. Infection may be successfully accomplished by intraperi- 
toneal or intramuscular injections of the virus, hut natural infection 
rarely occurs in this way. 

Period of incubation. — The period of incul)ation after natural in 
fection is variable, depending upon the virulence of the virus and the 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



281 



resistance of tlie infeeted swine. In most instances there will be a 
rise of tem])eratnre from tlie tiftli to tlie seventh day, and the animals 
will be visibly sick by tlie tenth day after infection. The period of 
incubation in inoculation experiments varies from four to seven days. 
Lesions. — Certain lesions have been described by various authors, 
investigators and practitioners as characteristic of hog cholera, but it 
has not been dehnitely determined whether these lesions were due to 
the tiltrable virus or the result of some associated pathogenic agent. 




^^ 



Fig. Tli. Lungs of hog showing attached lymph-glands. 1, Lymph-glands 
on pleura adjacent to pericardial sac: 2. right anterior and posterior; 
bronchial lymph-glands; 3, left bronchial lymph-gland; 4, lymph-gland 
attached to mediastinal pleura between aorta and left pulmonary lobe; 
5, lymph-glands on superior surface of aorta peculiar to hogs and 
taking the place of posterior mediastinal chain of glands in bovines. 
(From Aureggio's "Allium Guide.") 



It is possible that hog cholera due to the tiltrable virus is a lesionless 
disease in so far as gross lesions are concerned, excepting those 
changes that occur as a result of a high antemortem temperature. In 
many cases carefully auto])sied, of the first swine that died of the 
very acute type of cholera, the only lesions found consisted of pareu- 



282 



SWINE PRACTICE 



chymatoiis deg'eneration or cloudy swelling- of the essential organs. 
Hog' cholera, at least when rapidly fatal, is essentially a septicemia, 
and partakes of the nature of an acute malady. No doubt there are in- 
stances when the virulence of the tiltrable virus has been diminished 
or the resistance of the infected animals has been increased and the 
disease would be prolonged and probably not very fatal unless com- 
plications arose. 

In the cases of very acute and rapidly fatal cholera the only con- 
stant lesion consists of cloudy swelling of parenchymatous tissues. In 




Fig. 76. Head of hog showing lymph-glands. 1.1'. Parotid lymph-glands; 
2, postpharyngeal or retrophaiyngeal lymph-glands: 3.3', superior cervical 
lymph-glands; S, submaxillary salivary lymph-glands on each side of the 
salivary glands in the intermaxillary space. (From Aureggio's "Album 
Guide".) 



addition the following lesions may be found in the cases of the usual 
type of hog cholera : 

Ski7i. — The skin may be hyperemic, and there may be subcutaneous 
hemorrhages. The blood vascular skin lesions are mo.st marked on the 
srft skin on the under surface of the belly and the inner sides of th;^ 
thighs and forearms. The hemorrhages may l)e petechial or they may 
be ecchymotic. When lesions of the skin occur they are scarlet red in 
color. 

Lymph-glands. — The lesions of these glands are not confined to any 
one gland or group of glands, but may occur in the cervical glands 



PLATE III. 




Fig. 1 



Fig. 2 




Fig. 1. A typical tuberculous liver. 

Fig. 2. Vertebrae showino- tuberculous bone lesions. 



INB^ECTIOUS DISEASES 28o 

only in one case, in the mesenterie in another case, and may l)e fonnd 
in two or more g'roups of olands or practically all glands in other 
cases. The changes in the lymph-glands consist of tumefaction, hyper- 
emia and hemorrhage. In some cases there is evidence only of tume- 
faction and hyperemia ; in others there will l)e tumefaction, hyperemia 
and hemorrhage. The color of the atfectecl lymph-glands varies from 
a scarlet red to almost black. In some cases there is a distinct hem 
orrhage just beneath the gland capsule. The atfected glands are 
usually less dense than the normal. 

Digestive iiihe. — There may be liyperemia and hemorrhage in the 
mucous membrane, submucosa and subserosa of any portion of the 
digestive tract. Pharyngeal submucous hemorrhages, petechial or 
ecchymotic, are relatively common. There may be a general hyper- 
emia of the mucosa of the stomach and small intestines, but it is less 
common in the mucous membrane of the large intestine. Petechial 
or ecchymotic hemorrhages are relatively common in the mucosa of the 
small intestine. Subserous petechial hemorrhages of the stomach, 
small and large intestine are of frequent occurrence and in some 
cases the hemorrhages may be ecchymotic. 

Spleen. — The spleen may or may not be tumefied due to accumula- 
tion of an excessive (juantity of l)lood, and consequently it will be 
darker in color. There may be hemorrhages of varying size, particu- 
larly near the hilus. 

Eespiratory organs. — Sul)mucous petechial hemorrhages of the epi 
glottis are relatively common and by some considered ^characteristic. 
There may be petechial hemorrhages beneath the tracheal mucous 
membrane. Petechial hemorrhages may be very prevalent throughout 
the lung tissue or they may be few in number. Lung hemorrhages 
are quite constant although cases are observed in which it is not pos- 
sible to find these lesions. Pneumonia of the croupous type may occur 
in the cephalic or cardiac lobes. 

Heart. — Subendocardial petechial or ecchymotic hemorrhages and 
sub]iericardial petchial hemorrhages are common lesions. 

Kidney. — Petechial hemorrhages may or may not occur in the kid- 
ney. The petechial hemorrhages that occur in cases of hog cholera 
are relatively small and shari)ly circumscribed. 

Bladder. — The bladder fre(iuently contains petechial hemorrhages 
which are according to some investigators ])athognomonic of hog 
cholera. 

Bones. — The lesions in bones occur in the red marrow and consist 



284 SWJNE PRACTICE 

of hemorrhages and ehaiige in eolor. This lesion is particularly notice- 
able in the red marrow of tlat bones, such as the ribs. The affected 
bones may be practically black -because of the hemorrhagic extra vasate. 

From the foregoing description it will be noted that the lesions of 
tbe ordinary cases of hog cholera consist of parenchymatous degener- 
ation of all parenchymatous tissue and there may be subcutaneous, 
subserous and submucous hyperemia and hemorrhage, tumefaction, 
hyperemia and hemorrhage of lymph-glands and spleen, all of which 
are the general lesions characterizing the various septicemic diseases. 

Uncomplicated cholera does occur, but is probably the exception 
and the lesions of hog cholera when associated with other diseases are 
difficult to recognize. 

Syniptom-s.— Hog cholera is essentially an acute disease. In the 
beginning of an outbreak of hog cholera the first animals affected die 
so quickly that the finding of one or more dead hogs is the first evi- 
dence of the presence of disease. The first symptom in the usual out- 
breaks of hog cholera is rise of temperature. The febrile condition in 
the beginning does not cause any visible manifestation and is ascer- 
tained only by means of a thermometer. Thus an infected herd of 
swine may in the early stages of the disease be carefully inspected and 
passed as healthy unless temperatures are taken. Some practitioners 
encounter serious difficulties in the immunization of swine because 
they do not take temperatures and ascertain the condition of the swine 
that they are immunizing. The temperature in swine affected witli 
cholera varies from 104 to 108° F. 

Soon after the rise of temperature the affected animals are inclined 
to isolate themselves and stand with their backs arched and heads 
down, or they may crawl under the bedding. In the beginning the ap- 
petite is impaired ; later the animals refuse all food. Vomiting is a 
common symptom in the early stages of the disease. There is usually 
constipation in the beginning, but this is succeeded by diarrhea. The 
fecal discharges are frequently admixed with blood. There is usually a 
purulent conjunctivitis; the discharges accumulate on the eyelashes 
and frequently cause adhesion of the eyelids. There may be a limited 
mucopurulent discharge from the nose. In the less acute cases 
erythema of the skin may occur on the second or third day, the dis- 
colored areas being observed on the ventral surface, especially on the 
inner side of the thighs and are red or reddish purple in color. The 
ears may become tumefied, due to congestion and edema. The affected 
animals become weak as the disease progresses. They have uncertain 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 285 

wabbling gait, are gaunt in appearajice, refuse all food and usually 
die in from two to seven days. An occasional case recovers after 
being ill for several days. In such cases it is not uncommon for 
areas of skin or even the ears to slough, leaving ragged ugly wounds 
that heal very slowly. 8uch recovered hogs are permanently immune 
to hog cholera. In some instances the first manifestation of the 
disease is lameness, the disease sometimes being diagnos'^d as rheu- 
.natism. .iS:||<f><lr. 

In complicated cases the symptoms will vary according to the nature 
of the complication. When hog cholera is associated with necrotic 
enteritis the principal symptoms of uncomplicated cholera will be 
observed in addition to marked digestive derangements. There will 
be rise of temperature, impaired appetite, anorexia, vomition, diarrhea 
without the initial constipation, weakness, gauntness, and death. 
Cutaneous erythema may or may not occur; the ears usually become 
swollen and there may be sloughing of the ears, or portions of the 
skin ; purulent conjunctivitis is usually present. 

Hog cholera may be associated with pneumonia. These cases are 
manifested by the symptoms of hog cholera and disturbances of 
respiration, such as cough, nasal discharge and dyspnea, the intensity 
of the pneumonic symptoms depending upon the extent of the lung 
involved in the pneumonic process. The course of hog cholera com- 
plicated with pneumonia is relatively short and usually fatal. 

Swine plague is frequently associated with hog cholera. The sep- 
ticemic form of swine plague is manifested by symptoms very similar 
to those evidenced in cholera, and when this form of swine plague 
occurs as a complication of hog cholera it is not possible to recognize 
the existence of the two diseases. Swine affected with the combination 
of the septicemic form of swine plague and hog cholera evidence an 
extremely high temperature, anorexia and marked depression, and 
death occurs within a few hours after the onset. The pulmonary form 
of swine plague is the usual type of this disease that occurs as a com- 
plication of hog cholera and the symptoms manifested are practically 
the same as described in the pneumonic complication of hog cholera. 

In some cases there is a combination of hog cholera, necrotic enter- 
itis and the pulmonary form of swine plague or pneumonia. The 
symptoms manifested by such a combination of diseases will vary 
according to the intensity of each of the diseases. There will be high 
temperature, general lassitude, reluctance to move, arched back, de- 
pressed head, impaired appetite or iiiappetence, vomition, diarrhea, 



286 SWINE PRACTICE 

cough, dyspnea, nasal and ocular discharge, cutaneous erythema, 
tumefactions and necrosis. 

Diagnosis. — From the foregoing description of the lesions and symp- 
toms of hog cholera it will be evident that the diagnosis is difficult. 
There are some laymen and an occasional veterinarian who diagnose 
all ailments of swine as hog cholera. Recent recognition of some other 
infections of swine have caused confusion to clinicians, and the identi- 
fication of hog cholera has apparently become more difficult. 

The symptoms evidenced may be suggestive of hog cholera, but a 
diagnosis should not be based upon symptoms alone. The lesions 
found in swine dead of cholera, excepting cloudy swelling, are not 
constant and uniform, but nevertheless are of value in arriving at a 
diagnosis. Hyperemia and hemorrhages in the submucosa, subserosa 
and lymph-glands, although they may be due to some associated con- 
dition are quite common and serve as a guide in diagnosis. The 
liemorrhages in the submucosa of the bladder and epiglottis, althougli 
not alwaj's present in cases of hog cholera, are considered when pres- 
ent as characteristic by many investigators. It is very probable that 
similar hemorrhages may he observed in cases of hemorrhagic sep- 
ticemia. The so-called "turkey-egg kidney" is not characteristic of 
hog cholera, as this lesion occurs in hemorrhage septicemia and prob- 
ably some other infections; however, this lesion may be observed in 
the carcasses of swine that have died of hog cholera. 

Pneumonic lesions are relatively common in hog cholera. The lesion 
in the lung consists of croupous pneumonia and involves the cardiac 
or cephalic lobes. This lesion cannot be considered characteristic of 
hog cholera, as it is the typical lesion of croupous pneumonia. 

Swine plague is distinguished from the pectoral form of cliolera 
by the fact that the former is characterized by catarrhal pneumonia 
in the early stages of the disease, and by necrotic pneumonia in the 
later stages, and also by the presence of fibrinous pleurisy with or 
without adhesions. 

Engorgement of the spleen is a common lesion in acute cholera, but 
this condition sometimes occurs as a result of disturbed digestion and 
as a result of leukemia, and is a common lesion of other septicemic 
diseases. Therefore enlarged spleen alone should not be considered 
a sufficient evidence upon which to base a diagnosis of cholera. 

The congestion and hemorrhage of the lymph nodes is one of the 
most common lesions of cholera, but this lesion is not always present. 
Hemorrhages of the suberosa and submucosa are quite constant in 



PLATE IV. 




Fig. 1 




Fig. 2 



Fig. 1. Spleen showing calcified tubercles sur- 
rounded by hyperemic margins. 

Fig. 2. Lung showing areas of normal tissue, areas of 
red hepatization and caseo-calcareous, tubercular areas. 



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288 



SWJNE PRACTICE 



cliolera ; however, they may oeeur in any other septicemia. The 
changes of the bone marrow, although oeeiirring to a less degree in 
other septic conditions, are among the most common lesions of cholera, 
but this lesion is absent in some of the peracute cases. Petechial 
hemorrhages are also of common occurrence in swine erysipelas, but 
this disease can be dilferentiated from cholera by the demonstration of 
the organism of swine erysipelas in the blood or splenic pulp. 

The principal diagnostic lesions occurring in cases of cholera ai-e 




Fig. 78. Mucous membrane of the bladder. A, normal: B, showing in- 
flammation due to hog cholera. 



subserous and submucous hemorrhages, congestion and hemorrhages 
of the lymph nodes, and the discoloration of the bone marrow. 

In the diagnosis, the history of the outbreak, and particularly the 
distance from known cases of cholera and whether or not any swine 
have recently been introduced, must always be taken into considera- 
tion. Finally, it must be understood that the only absolute method 
for the diagnosis of cholera at this time is the inoctilation of a known, 
healthy, susceptible pig with from one to five cubic centimeters of 
filtered blood from the sus]iected animal. 

Prognosis. — Cholera is a very fatal disease. The mortality varies 
from sixty to ninety-eight per cent. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



280 



Treatntent. — It is probable tliat more proprietary remedies have 
been devised and advertised as lio^' cholera eiires than for any other 
disease of domesticated animals. The application of therapeutic 
agents other than anti-hog cholera serum has not proved satisfactory 
in any proved outbreak of cholera. Hog cholera is a preventable dis- 
ease, and prevention is far more satisfactory and economic than treat- 
ment of affected animals. 

Hog houses and yards and hog pens should be located where they 
can be properly drained. It is not necessary for swine to have mud 




Fig. 79. A wrong disposal of cholera hog carcasses. Chickens and dogs 
feeding on such carcasses may be prolific distributors of the infection. 



and filth for their existence. They will thrive better when kept in 
sanitary quarters. The sheds and hog houses should be ])roperly con- 
structed in order that they can be kei)t in a sanitary condition. It has 
been the custom to consider that anything is good enough for swine. 
Thus many men having extensive tinancial interests in pork })roductiou 
are constantly seeking fermented grain and moldy and otherwise 
spoiled or damaged foods for their swine, because such foodstuff can 
usually be purchased for less money than a clean, wholesome food. 
But such foods interfere with the digestion, thus weakening the ani- 



290 SWINE PRACTICE 

mals and rendering them more susceptible to disease. Swine that are 
given the proper diet are not necessarily immnne to cholera, but they 
are much more resistant than swine affected with digestive derange- 
ments. Swine should also receive an abundance of clean, wholesome 
water, and not be permitted to drink water from polluted streams or 
stagnant pools. Many cases of what would probably have been fatal 
cases of cholera have been nursed back to health by providing good 
surroundings and a diet of clean, sweet milk. 

Carcasses of swine, regardless of the cause of death, should be 
promptly disposed of, preferably by burning. To permit carcasses to 
putrefy in lots or other places, invites carrion birds and animals such 
as crows, buzzards, dogs, cats, wolves, foxes, rats, etc., and the dis- 
semination by infection by such means may cause serious losses to 
neighbors or on remote farms. Barnyard fowls and pigeons are fre- 
quently the means of spreading infection from farm to farm. 

Every well regulated farm has provision for isolation of new stock, 
such as boars, brood sows, or stocker hogs. It is also advisable to quar- 
antine all swine that have been used for exhibition purposes at state 
fairs or stock shows. The period of quarantine should never be less than 
three weeks. By this measure many general outbreaks of hog cholera 
and other infective diseases of swine can be prevented. Whenever 
disease appears on a farm it should be rigidly quarantined to prevent 
the spread of infection to adjacent farms. Police regulations and 
general sanitary measures should be instituted or more rigidly en- 
forced if they have been provided for by the various live stock sanitary 
boards. The following rules and regulations have been recommended 
and if enforced will be an important factor in diminishing the losses 
incidental to hog cholera. 

1. The shipment or movement, interstate, of swine affected with 
cholera to be prohibited. 

2. Exposed swine to be shipped under permit and placard. 

3. The movement of cholera-infected swine over the public high- 
ways to be prohibited. 

4. Provision for moving exposed swine under permit in approved 
manner. 

5. Carcasses of animals, and particularly of swine that have died 
of cholera, to be burned within twenty-four hours after death, or 
under special permit to be disposed of otherwise. 

6. The shipment by rail of swine for purposes other than imme- 
diate slaughter to be permitted only through special pens and unload- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 29] 

ing chutes, or through portable chutes directly into wagons. If un- 
loaded in regular loading pens, to be moved under permit in approved 
manner. - 1 

7. Public stockyards to be under close supervision and cleaned and 
disinfected at intervals determined by the proper state authorities. 

8. Railway cars for the transportation of swine other than such 
as are intended for immediate slaughter, to be cleaned, washed and 
disinfected before swine are loaded. 

9. All cars in which diseased swine are found, or in which exposed 
swine are shipped for immediate slaughter, to be cleaned, washed, 
and disinfected within twenty-four hours after unloading, or cars to 
be held until the presence or absence of disease has been determined. 

10. All cars or vehicles of transportation carrying cholera-exposed 
swine to be placarded in a conspicuous manner, "Cholera Exposed 
Swine for Immediate Slaughter." 

11. Owners of swine and persons in charge, including attending 
veterinarians, to report without delay to state authorities all outbreaks 
of cholera among swine. 

12. Live stock sanitary authorities to quarantine all infected herds 
and premises, but may permit shipment of exposed swine for imme- 
diate slaughter as above provided. 

13. Infected premises to be quarantined not less than sixty days 
after last traces of disease have disappeared and premises have been 
cleaned and disinfected. 

14. ' Infected premises to be cleaned and disinfected under super- 
vision prescribed by live stock sanitary authorities. 

15. Live stock sanitary authorities to be given power to provide in 
a practicable manner against the dangerous pollution of streams with 
hog-cholera virus and provide for the safe disposal of garbage liable 
to be infected with hog-cholera virus. 

16. To prevent the spread of hog cholera by swine shown for ex- 
hibition purposes, such swine to be treated with serum and virus not 
less than forty days prior to the opening date of the exhibit, or with 
serum alone not more than fifteen days before such time, 

17. Provision for controlling for thirty days, by quarantine or 
otherwise when deemed advisable by the proper authority, of all swine 
treated with serum-virus, or premises on which such swine are kept, 
to prevent danger of possible spread of infection from inoculated 
animals. 

If the above or similar regulations could be instituted and enforced 



292 SWJNE PRACTICE 

cholera in swine would be materially diminished. Since the advent of 
anti-hog cholera serum the enforcement of sanitary regulations has 
been neglected. In order to obtain and enforce efficient sanitary 
measures the pork producers must first be educated to the necessity of 
such measures. 

The application of some of the simple sanitary rules have proved 
of great monetary value to swine raisers. As an illustration, the 
separation of the infected from the healthy swine following the use 
of a clinical thermometer, and the proper after-care, have been the 
means of saving over fifty per cent of many infected herds. If as 
much consideration were given to proper hygienic care and sanitary 
control, as is given to the production, distribution and application of 
serum, hog cholera would soon become a much less serious disease. 

Preventive treatment. — The first use of serum for the prevention 
of hog cholera was made in 1897 by Preisz, who obtained it from a 
swine that had recovered from cholera. In 1904 De Schweinitz and 
Dorset demonstrated that hog cholera was caused by a filtrable virus, 
and soon after, Dorset, JMcBryde, and Niles devised a plan of hyper- 
immunizing swine for the purpose of producing anti-hog cholera 
serum. This serum came into general use about 1908, and is now 
being used extensively in the United States. 

It is prepared on the following general plan, different manufactur- 
ers having slightly different methods. 

The production of serum is of considerable importance, and a brief 
description of the general process follows : 

Swine having a large carcass and weighing 225 to 275 pounds are 
selected, and if they are not known to be immune they are simul- 
taneously immunized. Swine must have been immune for not less 
than 60 days prior to hyperimmunization. The swine used for hyper- 
immunes may be tuberculin tested and the reactors discarded. A 
prerequisite of the hyperimmunizing process consists in having all 
instruments and equipment sterile and environments that are con- 
ducive to asepsis. The immune swine that are to be hyperimmunized 
should be kept in a pasture or yards that are concreted to prevent 
undue filthiness. The virus used is obtained by injecting healthy, 
susceptible pigs with one or two cubic centimeters of virus. A pig 
weighing from sixty to ninety pounds is usually used. The virus 
pigs should be carefully observed, and temperature records main- 
tained. If susceptible pigs have been injected with a virulent viriKS 
there will be evidence of the disease in four to seven days, arid from 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 293 

the seventh to the iiiiitli day tlie temperature of tlie pi^' will ])rol)al)ly 
range from 105 to 108 dejirees Fahrenheit, and is then ])rei)ared for 
slaughter hy thoronghly washing and applying some disinfectant to 
the skin of the ventral snrface of the body. In addition to these 
precautions the inferior cervical region is shaved. The entire pig is 
shrouded with moist, antiseptic gauze to prevent any particles of dust 
from dropping into the vessels used in collecting the virus. The blood- 
vessels are severed, and the blood is collected in a sterile vessel and the 
fibrin whipped and removed. The remainder of the blood is filtered 
through gauze, and constitutes the virus blood. The virus pig is then 
autopsied, and if lesions of cholera are not found, or if lesions of 
other diseases are found, the collected virus blood is discarded. 

Hyperimmunizing is accomplished by the intravenous injections 
of virus. For the hyperimmunization at least five cubic centimeters 
of virus are used to the pound weight of the hog that is being hyper- 
immunized. This quantity is given as a single injection. In the in- 
travenous method the injection is made in an ear vein after properly 
cleansing and securing the animal. Various devices are used in mak- 
ing the injection. The principle involved is to force the virus into 
the vein slowly. The virus should be near the body temperature when 
injected. In the intra-museular method the virus is injected in the 
interstices between the muscle bundles, selecting two, three, or four 
locations, as the inner thigh muscles and the subscapular region. The 
intraperitoneal injection is made by passing a long needle through the 
abdominal parietes into the peritoneal cavity. 

The hyperimmunes are kept in clean, sanitary pens and a temper- 
ature record maintained in order that the producer may know when 
the reaction is over. When the temperature assumes the normal the 
blood contains the antibodies. Two methods of bleeding hyper- 
immunes are in use — the slaughter method and tail bleeding. By the 
slaughter method practically all of the blood is obtained. By the tail- 
bleeding process from two to three bleedings are made, and the swine 
are re-hyperimmunized, and after the reaction they are used for 
bleeding. Sometimes the hyperimmune is tail bled for one, two, or 
three times and then slaughtered. Each method has some advantages 
and some disadvantages. The slaughter method is the most rapid — 
in other words, more serum can be produced in a given length of time 
than by tail-bleeding. Tail-lileeding is the most economical method 
of producing serum, and antiseptic precautions can be carried out 
more effectually. 



294 



SWINE PRACTICE 



Proper equipment is required for either process, and the instru- 
ments, bottles, and other utensils used must be sterile and the environ- 
ment must be conducive to asepsis. 




Fig. 80. VIRUS BLEKDiNG ROOM. 1, ilevulviut; dour upon which the pig is 

secured and cleaned. The door is then turned, bringing the pig into 

the bleeding room; 2, shrouded pig. 



The blood obtained from hyperimmune swine is whipped, the 
fibrin being removed and the remaining portion of the blood filtered 
through gauze. The blood from each hog is kept separate until the 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 295 

carcass is aiitopsied and the absence of cholera and other diseases 
is demonstrated. Centrifugation of the blood is being practiced by 
some producers, and this should be encouraged, as a cleaner product 
and one that is more easily injected is produced. 

Clarified anti-hog cholera serum is the name applied to a specially 
prepared serum from hyperimmune swine. This serum is free from 
l)lood cells and fibrin and practically free from hemoglobin. A rel- 
atively smaller dose is required of clarified than of ordinary serum, 
and abscess formation is less likely to occur by use than with the 
usual anti-hog cholera serum. 

The blood obtained from hyperimmune swine by either process is 
preserved by adding a small percentage of phenol or trikresol and 
properly sealed and placed in storage at a temperature of about 50 
degrees Fahrenheit. Before the serum is used it is tested. First, 
second, and third bleedings from different hyperimmunes, or the blood 
from different hyperimmunes obtained by slaughtering, are mixed up 
to quantities of 80,000 cubic centimeters. This amount constitutes a 
series, and therefore each series is a composite serum. For a test 
sample a proportionate quantity is taken from each separate quantity 
that makes up a series. The sample should be obtained immediately 
after bleeding, thus obviating reopening of the bottles. 

For the test seven healthy, susceptible pigs, weighing from forty- 
five to ninety pounds each, are selected. These pigs are maintained in 
special pens. The test is made as follows: Each of the seven pigs 
is injected with two cubic centimeters of virus and five of them receive 
twenty cubic centimeters of serum. The two pigs are designated check 
pigs, and they should show visible symptoms and die of typical cholera 
within twelve to eighteen days. A temperature record is maintained 
for twenty days, and from observing this record the virulence of the 
virus and the potency of the serum can in a measure be determined. 

This test is not absolute, but it is of value as an indicator. The 
test should be repeated if the following conditions arise. First, if the 
check pigs should not show any evidence of cholera within ten to 
fifteen days ; second, if the check pigs or any of the other five should 
show a constant high temperature beginning on the second, third or 
fourth day after the test begins ; third, if either of the five pigs should 
die of cholera during the time of the test. 

The serum that has been tested and in which the two check pigs 
have died of cholera and the five pigs have shown no visible illness 
nor any constant rise of temperature is ready for mixing and bottling, 



296 



SWINE PRACTICE 



after which it is ready for use. The laboratory for mixing- and bot- 
tling must be properly constructed in order that contamination of 
the serum may be reduced to a minimum and the necessary equip- 
ment, such as sterilizers, must be provided. 




Fig. 81. HYPERiMMUNiziNu ROOM. 1. virus-coiitainer showing attachment to 
pressure tank: 2, needle inserted into the ear vein. 



For mixing the serum a container must be selected that can be 
sterilized and from which the serum can be bottled. 

After thoroughlv mixing the serum constituting a series it is with- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 297 

drawn into sterile bottles, the size of which will be determined by the 
demand. The bottles are properly sealed, labeled, and wrapped, and 
until needed put back in storage at a temperature not to exceed 50 
degrees Fahrenheit. 

The foregoing' description is the general method of production of- 
anti-hog-cholera serum. jMany little factors that are of considerable 
importance have not been enumerated. The accompanying illustra- 
tions may convey some idea of the problems of the production of 
this product. The production of anti-hog-cholera serum has become 
of such vast importance to the swine industry of the country that 
Congress has provided means for its regulation in order that a potent 
serum may be obtained. 

SERUM PRODUCTION 

The following is a general description of requirements for serum 
production. 

LOCATION OF BUILDINGS 

Location to be such that surroundings will not interfere with sanitary 
production and that their operation will not contaminate surrounding areas. 

CONSTRUCTION OP BUILDINGS 

The construction of buildings to be of material that will permit of daily 
cleaning and disinfection, stone, brick, tile, and concrete being especially 
recommended. 

ARRANGEMENT OF PLANT 

1. The arrangement and equipment of buildings to be such as to insure 
the production of a pure and uncontaminated product. 

2. Swine to be kept in separate buildings located a sufficient distance 
from the building containing the bleeding (either virus or serum) and 
hyperimmunizing rooms in which swine are to be placed for the latter 
purpose only. 

3. The serum bleeding room, the virus bleeding room, and the hyper- 
immunizing room to be separate and distinct rooms. 

4. The preparation of serum, and the preparation of virus from the whole 
blood, to be operations conducted in separate and distinct rooms without 
direct communication with each other or with the foregoing not larger than 
an opening which will permit the transfer of receptacles containing the 
freshly drawn blood, and to be used for no other purpose. 

5. Separate washing and sterilizing rooms to be provided. 

6. The prepared serum and virus to be stored in properly cooled rooms. 

7. Swine kept for virus production and the testing of serum to be prop- 
erly isolated so as to reduce to a minimum the danger of spreading infec- 
tion. Separate and distinct feed rooms to be provided for such animals. 

S. Mortuary, crematory, abattoir, and desiccating or rendering plant 



298 



SWINE PRACTICE 



operated for utilizing the waste products of the establishment to be located 
so as to prevent contamination from this source. 

9. Necessary dressing and toilet rooms, properly equipped and located, to 
be provided. Also bottling and packing rooms. 

10. Provision for the sanitary disposal of all manure, offal and debris. 

OPERATION 

1. The operation of serum plants to be under the direct supervision of a 
competent veterinarian or other professional man whose training and expe- 
rience have fitted him for this work. 

2. Prohibition of the sale of serum and vii'us produced from animals 
affected with any contagious disease other than hog cholera and of any 
contaminated serum or virus. 




Fig. 82. SEBUM CENTRiruciAG Kdo.M. ], a ten quart centrifuge; 2, a four- 
quart centrifuge. 

1. Electric sterilizer. 2. Autoclave. 3. Type of utensil used for collecting 

blood 



3. ' Provision requiring full and complete records of all steps in the manu- 
facture and test of serum or virus. 

4. The label on the container of serum or virus to show the true name 
of the product, the name or number of the manufacturer, the date of prep- 
aration, or the date after which the manufacturer no longer guarantees the 
product, and a serial number to identify the product with the records of the 
establishment. 

Two general methods are utilized in the immnnization of swine 
wdtli anti-hog-cholera sernm — the sernm alone method and the simul- 
taneous method. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



299 



The exact method of administering serum has been freely discussed 
at various associations, and numerous articles have appeared in vari- 
ous publications. The operator must always provide clean and sterile 
instruments. It is true that the instruments become contaminated as 
soon as used, but at least two needles should be provided in order that 
one may be placed in a disinfecting solution while the other is in 
use. The syringe should be sterilized by boiling after being used for 
a few hours or after a herd has been immunized, before using it on 
.another herd. The serum and virus should be injected deeply into 
the muscle or preferably into the axillary space, in order to insure 




Fig. 



83. STEEiLiziNG ROOM. 1, electric sterilizer; 2, autoclave; 3, type of 
utensil used for collecting blood. 



rapid absorption. Bad results are frequently due to failure of absorp- 
tion of the serum or virus that has been injected just beneath the skin 
in the subcutaneous fat. Swine that are in filthy, muddy pens should 
not be injected, because of the probability of infection in the needle 
wounds, and swine that have quantities of mud or filth upon their 
bodies should not be injected. All swine that are injected should 
be reasonably clean, the point of injection should be painted with 
tincture of iodin, and the skin should be pinched after withdrawing 
the needle to prevent leakage. 

The serum-alone method produces an immunity for a period of 
from one week to three months, but it does not entail any danger of 



300 SWINE PRACTICE 

infecting and producing- cholera in a cholera-free herd and establish- 
ing new centers of cholera in a community free from the disease. By 
the proper use of serum alone in communities where there are only 
a few centers, cholera could be efficiently controlled. In such cases 
the infected herd and all surrounding herds should be immunized and 
if necessary the process could be repeated six weeks later. This 
method of control is not as applicable when several counties of a 
state, or the entire state, is infected. Serum alone, when given in 
large doses, is of considerable value in the incubation period of the 
disease before the animals show visible symptoms but after the tem- 
perature has risen. The judicious use of serum in such cases has 
saved as high as eighty or ninety per cent of the exposed herd. The 
dose of serum in the serum-alone treatment depends upon the sus- 
ceptibility of the pigs and the potency of the serum. The following 
schedule of serum dosage for serum-alone treatment in non-infected 
swine has been suggested : 

Weight of Hog Dose of Serum 

Below 10 pounds 10 cubic centimeters 

10 to 15 pounds — .15 cubic centimeters 

20 to 30 pounds 20 to 25 cubic centimeters 

40 to 75 pounds 30 cubic centimeters 

100 to 150 pounds 40 to 60 cubic centimeters 

175 pounds and over 80 cubic centimeters 

The above dosage should be increased about 50 per cent. 

Serum-alone treatment is indicated in infected swine and in ex- 
posed swine that are to be marketed within three or four weeks. 

The simultaneous method is used more extensively than the serum 
alone, because it produces a longer immunity. The dose of serum used 
in the simultaneous method should be fifty per cent more than the 
dose in the serum-alone method. Not less than one mil of virus should 
be used, and for swine weighing over 60 poiuids better results have 
been reported when 2 mils of virus were used. 

The serum and virus must be introduced separately into different 
parts of the l)ody. This method may be used successfully in exposed 
herds, especially in swine that do not show a high temperature. But 
the virus should not be given to hogs that are showing visible signs 
of cholera. The one .seriou.s disadvantage of the simultaneous method 
is the fact that infection is introduced. Good authorities claim that a 
hog immunized by the simultaneous method does not eliminate the 
virus unless he dies of the disease. 

The principal advantage of the simultaneous method of immuni- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



301 



zation is that a more lasting and permanent immunity is produced. 
The general opinion has prevailed that young pigs could not be per- 
manently immunized even by the simultaneous method, but accord- 
ing to a recent report of a series of experiments conducted by or 
under the supervision of the Bureau of Animal Industry, pigs from 
one to three weeks of age were permanently immunized against chol- 
era bj' the simultaneous method. This experiment simplifies the im- 
munization of swine against cholera and should be practiced in swine- 
raising districts as the dosage required for pigs is relatively small 
and the expense to the owner would be materially less than for the 
immunization of larger swine. 

A so-called double method has been advocated by some for the 
prevention of cholera. It consists of the serum-alone immunization, 



i^im*" 




Fig. 84. CHOLKRA IMMUNE iious. Tlicse hogs weif used at the Chicago 
stockyards, and were driven from pen to pen to clean up the food left by 
cattle and other hogs. They were, of course, constantly exposed to virulent 
infection. 



followed ten days later by the simultaneous method. This so-called 
double method should not be used because the virus used in tlie simul- 
taneous method is apparently rendered inactive or at least a perma- 
nent innuunity is not produced. 

Hog cholera can be controlled by the rational application of anti- 
hog cholera seruni combined with the proper enforcement of sanitary 
regulations. 

Swine Plague (Hemorrhagic Septicemia) 

Swine plague, also designated hemorrhagic septicemia, is a spe- 
cific infectious disease of swine caused by the Bacillus snisepticus. 



302 SWINE PRACTICE 

The presence of this disease in the United States is now apparently 
accepted by practically all investigators and state sanitary officials. 
This disease is not so fatal, neither is it so widespread, as cholera, it 
may occur sporadically or enzootically, but it rarely assumes an epi- 
zootic form. The percentage of losses in affected herds varies mark- 
edly, reaching as high as 75 in some instances. The greatest losses 
occur when animals are not kept in proper sanitary quarters, such 
as dusty or muddy pens, or in animals sleeping in wet, or damp 
quarters. 

Etiology. — The cause of swine plague is the B. suisepticus. This 
micro-organism is representative of the hemorrhagic septicemia group. 
The B. suisepticus is a short, bipolar-staining, polymorphic non-mo- 
tile organism, and does not form spores. The organism grows read- 
ily on practically all culture media, aerobically or anaerobically. It 
does not liquefy gelatine or coagulate milk, and is not stained by 
Gram's method. 

Its vitality is prolonged for from five to fifteen days in soil, feces 
and water when not exposed to sunlight, but is destroyed in two or 
or three days by desiccation, and is easily destroyed by weak anti- 
septics. The organism is killed in twenty minutes by a temperature 
of fifty-eight degrees Centigrade. 

Fowls, rabbits and guinea pigs are susceptible to the pathogenic 
action of these organisms. The virulence of the B. suisepticus is 
quite variable and is likely to vary quite suddenly. Intrapulmonary 
injections into swine usually produce multiple catarrhal pneumonia 
succeeded by necrotic pneumonia. 

Cahill has produced hemorrhagic septicemia in swine immune to 
hog cholera by the injection of blood from a pig dead of hemorrhagic 
septicemia; also by the injection of pure cultures of B. suisepticus. 

There is some doubt as to just what factors are necessary to bring 
about an outbreak of swine plague. Certain it is that the infection 
is more widespread than the disease. It appears that something to 
lower the normal resistance of the animal is necessary in addition 
to the B. suisepticus to bring about the disease. Swine plague is 
prone to appear in animals suffering from cholera; in animals sub- 
ject to the hardships of shipping; in pigs at weaning time; in herds 
suddenly placed on green corn for feed ; in young animals subjected 
to unusual exposure, as to a cold rain in early spring or late fall, 
and, as is well recognized, in animals kept in dusty quarters. 

Further, swine plague is quite apt to occur in swine recently 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



303 



vaccinated against hog cholera, particularly if good sanitation is not 
observed. It has been noted many times as being concomitant with 
necrobacillosis ; in short, the infection being almost universally dis- 
tributed, may be expected to set up a disturbance in a great variety 
of conditions where the vitality of the exposed animal is lowered. 

The amount of infection present also has its bearing on the exten- 
sion of the disease, since once it has become active in any of the indi- 

Infected (inflamed) anterior lobes of lungs 




Fig. 8"). Hog lungs with chronic swine plague, anterior lobes affected. 

(Ostertag.) 



viduals of a given herd, swine plague is quite apt to extend to all 
swine associated with the affected animals, even though they may 
seem healthy and apparently possess a normal resistance to the in- 
fection. '. 

Source of infection. — Bacilli suisepticus, like the other represen- 
tatives of this group, are widely distributed. TJiey are frequently 
found in the respiratory passages of normal swine. Their virulence 



304 SWINE PRACTICE 

is variable, and it seems plausible thai some predisposing condition 
must exist in the swine that become ait'eeted, or the organism sud- 
denly, for some reason unexj^lained, bec'omes sntficiently virulent 
to produce the disease. In most severe outbreaks it appears that the 
virulent organisms are transmitted from the diseased to the suscep- 
tible swine, or at least the disease may l^ecome enzootic in a very 
short time. 

Channel of entrance. — The channel of entrance may be by way 
of the respiratory organs, although the microorganism may be suc- 
cessfully introduced through the digestive tract or skin. 

Lesions. — This disease assumes different types or forms. The fol- 
lowing types have been recognized : the septicemic, the pulmonary, 
and the intestinal. It is not uncommon to tind the pulmonary and 
intestinal types existing at the same time. In other instances either 
the pulmonary or intestinal type may represent the primary condi- 
tion, and the septicemic type develop in the same animal, and usually 
result fatally. 

The septicemic form is characterized by petechial hemorrhages in 
the skin and in the serous and mucous membranes. There may also 
be some enlargement of the lymph-nodes and of the spleen. The pul- 
monary form of the disease is characterized by an atypical catarrhal 
pneumonia, different areas of the lung showing different stages of 
progress of the disease, such as congestion, red hepatization, gray 
hepatization, and later necrosis, in which the necrotic material may 
be liquid or caseous. As a result of the variation of the progress 
of the disease in different areas, the affected lung has a marbled or 
mottled appearance. There are some interlobular infiltrations; the 
bronchial and mediastinal glands may contain hemorrhages or necrotic 
centers; the pleura is usually affected with a fibrinous pleurisy with 
or without adhesions. In the more chronic cases the necrotic foci in 
the lung become more numerous and there may be a purulent or 
septic pleurisy, the discharge into the pleural cavity of the contents 
of necrotic pulmonarj^ centers. There will be a diffuse redness of 
the skin. 

The intestinal form of the disease is usually manifested by hemor- 
rhages and inflammation, the inflammatory process resulting in the 
deposit of a sticky tenacious exudate, which may be uniformly dis- 
tributed upon the mucosa of the large or small intestine, or it may 
appear as scattered areas. The exudate adheres tenaciously to the 
mucous membrane. The related lymph-glands are usually tumefied 



IKFECTIOUS niSEASES 



305 



and may l)e henioi-rJiagic hut there is no j)ei"i|)liei'al hemorrhaji;e. Tlie 
spleen may or may not he enlar<>'e(l. This form of tlie disease is fre- 
quently associated with disturhcine(>s caused hy tlie B. suipestifer, 
('oh)n haeillus. Bacillus typhosus and Bacillus enteritidis, hut it is 
prohahle that the B. suisepticus is the primary disturbing factor. 

It is possible that a cerebral form of this disease may exist. 

Swine plague is frequently associated with hog cholera, and the 
various lesions characterizing that disease will then be present also, 
all of the lesions being variously modified. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation, at least in artifieally in- 
fected cases, is of short duration, rarely exceeding two days. The 
septicemic type is ushered in suddenly with a liigh temperature, 




Fig. 86. Pulmonary mixed infection, catarrhal pneumonia. 



though it rarely exceeds 105 degrees Fahrenheit, accompanied by in- 
appetence, weakness, and little tendency to move. The blush of the 
skin due to hyperemia may be observed. This form is rapidly fatal, 
the course rarely exceeding twelve hours. 

The pulmonary form of swine plague is evidenced by the usual 
symptoms of pneumonia, such as short, dry, spasmodic cough, dys- 
pnea, temperature up to 105 degrees Fahrenheit, a disposition on the 
part of the affected animals frequently to sit on their haunches like 
a dog, mucous or mucopurulent nasal discharge, diminished appetite 
and finally cessation of appetite, and usually constipation. As the 
disease progresses, breathing becomes more difificult and there is ex- 



306 



SWINE PRACTICE 



treme weakness and emaciation if the affected animals live long 
enough. The blush of the skin is usually present and there may be 
conjunctivitis. The acute form usually terminates fatally in about 
one week, but more rarely the disease becomes chronic. 

The subacute or chronic pulmonary form is evidenced by spasmodic 
cough, temperature of about 104 degrees Fahrenheit, poor appetite, 
emaciation, and weakness, the animals usually dying of exhaustion 
in from four to eight weeks. 

The intestinal form of this disease is evidenced by digestive de- 
rangement. There is usually diarrhea which persists and the animal 
emaciates rapidly and becomes weakened and dies in from a few 
days to perhaps two weeks after the onset. Dviring practically the 
entire course of the disease the appetite remains good. This par- 




Fig. ST. A group of pigs taken from a herd in which could be found 
symptoms of various diseases. The two pigs at tlie left (X) show symptoms 
of cholera. Autopsy showed lesions of cholera predominating, while autopsy 
of the pig in the center (O) showed well marked lesions of necrotic en- 
teritis. ; j. _, J J 



ticular type of the disease in some localities is designated as the 
drying-up disease. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of swine plague is attended with con- 
siderable difficulty. The septicemic form can be distinguished from 
the uncomplicated septicemic form of hog cholera only by the dem- 
onstration in the blood of the Bacillus suisepticus and the presence 
of hog cholera virus by the production of hog cholera by inoculation 
with the filtered blood. 

From the pneumonia of hog cholera the pulmonary form of swine 
plague is differentiated only by autopsy. The lung lesions in hog 



INFECTIOdS DISEASES 



307 



r-liolera consist of a ty])icMl (•i-ou|)ous pnoumoiiia and in tlie later 
sta(>es of neci'osis. 

Verminous pnciimoitid. — May be ditterentiated from swine plagne 
by the ehronicity of the attack, the wheezing respiration, and the 
demonstration on autopsy of the 8trongylns paradoxus. The ver- 




Fig. 88. A group of pigs showing various symptoms. Note the spotted 
pig at the left holding its right front foot up. Rheumatic arthritis is 
present, due to circulation of toxins in the system. 



minons pneumonia caused by the deveh)pment of the larval form of 
the Ascaris suum is embolic in character and may be identitied by 
demonstration of the larvae microscopically. 

(Uifarrhal pnetunonia. — Is differentiated from swine plague pneu- 



H^^K^^^^ 


"Hi 


P^ '-. ^'' ' 


4 





Fig. 89. A bad bunch of sick hogs. Some went down, others had paroxysms 
of coughing; many went down in the back. 



monia by the fact that the former disease occurs only in young pigs 
and is sporadic, and rarely are the necrotic centers typical of swine 



308 SWINE PRACTICE 

plague found in the lung. Pleuritic eomplieations are also the ex- 
ception in catarrhal pneumonia. 

Treatment. — Prevention by tlie enforcement of sanitary regulations 
is important. The spread of this disease seems to be favored by dry 
weather; consequently, sprinkling pens and houses with disinfectant 
solutions is helpful. 

Good results have been obtained by the use of bacterin prepared 
from the B. suisepticus. The good results that may be obtained from 
the use of bacterin depend primarily upon an accurate diagnosis. 
In other words, it is futile to hope for good results following the 
administration of bacterin in cases of cholera, verminous bronchitis 
or sporadic cases of bronchial pneumonia. 

The bacterin may be injected at tlie base of the ear. Single doses 
are ordinarily sufficient to produce immunity, but where one is desir- 
ous of a more positive immunity, it is best to give a second injec- 
tion three or four days after the first. 

The method of administering the bacterin depends upon the size 
of the hogs and the number in question. Pigs are conveniently in- 
jected with the swine plague bacterin by having them caught by an 
attendant and injecting the bacterin either in the thigh or in tlie 
axillary space. Tlie site of injection should not be covered with 
mud or dirt, but if the skin is dry, the injection may be made after 
the application of a disinfectant. Larger hogs may be driven into 
a chute and the injection made by introducing the needle deeply at 
the base of the ear. Tlie syringe and needles should be cleansed and 
sterilized prior to use. 

Infectious Necrotic Enteritis 

Infectious necrotic enteritis is a name applied to a disease or con- 
dition that is relatively common in swine and was formerly describetl 
as chronic hog cholera or an intestinal form of cholera. This condi- 
tion is frequently designated as "mixed infeetioir' or intestinal 
necrobacillosis. 

This disease has probably been more prevalent than any other in- 
fectious disease of hogs in the corn belt of the United States during 
the last two or three years. It is the most common condition found 
in immunized swine in which the so-called "hog cholera breaks" 
occur. In fact, many veterinarians make no distinction between in- 
fectious necrotic enteritis and hog cholera. It has been experiment- 
ally demonstrated that infectious necrotic enteritis occurs independ- 



INPECTIUUS DISEASES 



309 



eutly of hog cholera, although it is a frequent complication of that 
disease. Swine plague and infectious necrotic enteritis are distinct 
disease conditions, altliougli they frequently occur as associated con- 
ditions. 

Pigs weighing 30 to oO pounds are probably most frequently af- 
fected with infectious necrotic enteritis, although it may occur in re- 
cently farrowed pigs and aged hogs. (The consideration of this 
condition in recently farrowed pigs will be discussed under the head 
of "Scour in Pigs".) 




Fig. 90. Insanitary conditions that predisnose to a variety of infections. 
Tlie conditions shown above are clearly conducive to all kinds of infection. 
Note the pool of stagnant water surrounded by mud wallows, manure and 
decaying vegetable matter. 



Breed appears to play no part as regards susceptibility to this dis- 
ease. Condition of the swine undoubtedly is a factor in susceptibil- 
ity ; however, shotes in tlie best of condition become affected. Climatic 
conditions have little or no influence in the prevalence of infectious 
necrotic enteritis, altliougli the disease appears to be more common in 
late spring and early autumn, probably because that is the season 
when the majority of the pig crop is of the most susceptible age. 
Sanitary conditions in which the swine are maintained have an in- 
tiuence upon the susceptibility of swine to the infection; however, the 



310 SWINK PRACTICE 

disease may prevail in swine tiiat are kept in elean sanitary quar- 
ters. Food seems to liave little, if any, intlnenee upon the prevalence 
of the disease, although insuffieieiit or })oor (piality of feed would no 
doubt predispose to this disease, the same as to any other diseased 
condition. 

Etiology. — The si)ecitic cause of infectious necrotic enteritis has 
not been identified. This condition is not the result of the filtrable 
virus that produces hog cholera, for it has been demonstrated by the 
injection of filtered blood fi-om nnconiplicated cases of infectious 
necrotic enteritis into swine that were susi-cptible to hog cholera that 
the filtrable virus does not exist, at least in sufficient quantities or of 
sufficient virulence to produce disease. By experiment it has been 
demonstrated, although the findings are not positively conclusive, 
that the B. necrophorus is not the primary cause of this condition. 
Lik( wise, it has l)een I'ather coiu'lu.sivelv demonstrated liuit the B. lu- 




Fig. 91. Group of pigs affected with necrotic enteritis. These animals 
were maintained in pens that were as insanitary as could possibly be 
imagined. Note the general unthrifty appearance. 

polaris suis is only a secondary invader in infectious necrotic tinter- 
itis. By a microscopic examination of the lesions in the intestine it 
is possible to demonstrate the B. necrophorus in an occasional case 
of this disease, the B. bipolaris suis in over 50 per cent of the cases, 
the B. coli communis in practically all cases, the B. pai-atyphoid A cK- 
B in a few cases, and perhaps a variety of other microbial! agents 
in various cases, but the principal iiicriiiiinating evidence at this 
time is in sup])ort of the B. suipestifer as the principal or causative 
factor of infectious necrotic enteritis in swine. The B. suipestifer has 
been described as occurring normally in the intestine of healthy 
swine, but recent investigations by Jordan and Ten Broeck indi 
cate that this organism does not normally inhabit the intestine of 
swine and when found in normal animals its occurrence is looked 
upon as an indication of a carrier. The B. suipestifer occurs regu- 
larly in the intestinal lesion and in other tissue of atfected animals, 
and it is possible that the final proof of its causal relation to infc-- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



311 



tions necrotic enteritis will be established in the not far distant fu- 
ture. It seems probable that intestinal parasites are important pre- 
disposing- factors, probably because of injury to the intestinal mu- 
cosa which provides a favorable field for action. The probable usual 
method of entrance of the infection is in the feed or water, by way 
of the digestive tract. 

Lesions. — The principal lesions of infectious necrotic enteritis oc- 
cur in the mucous membrane of the intestine. In some cases the le- 
sions indicate that the infection begins in the lymphoid tissue (Pey- 
er's patches and solitary follicles) of the intestinal mucosa near the 
ileocecal valve. The lesions may be found in any portion of the di- 



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~^ ■ V , ^-, . ~---''9|« / - * - 


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Fig. 92. DIPHTHERITIC EXTERiTis. A. glaiid : B. congested stroma vessel; 
C, fibrinous exudate; D. organized fibrin in stroma. 



gestive tube including the stomach, but are usually more extensive in 
the intestine. In the beginning the lymphoid areas become congested 
and tumefied and later uiulergo necrosis. In other eases the lesions 
are apparently not confined to the lymphoid tissue, but invade the 
mucosa which becomes congested, tumefied and necrotic. When large 
areas of the mucous membrane become involved the lesion appears as 
a di])htheritic infiammation because of the adherent necrotic tissue. 
In some eases the entire intestinal wall appears thickened and friable, 
due to the accumulated necrotic tissue. Some cases are observed in 



312 SWINE PRACTICE 

whicli the necrotic tissue has sloiio'lied, leaving the intestinal wall 
relatively thin and inelastic. 

In prolonged cases or the chronic form of this disease the so-called 
''button ulcer" is of common occurrence. This lesion occurs when 
the infection is apparently localized in solitary follicles or Peyer's 
patches and the inflammatory and necrotic processes extend by con- 
tinuity, the necrotic tissue remaining intact or accumulating as dirty 
brown masses with raised margins. Microscopically the surface epi- 
thelium in the affected areas and the lymphoid tissue are found to 
be in various stages of degeneration and disintegration. The degen- 
erated and dead cells commingle with the coagulated inflammatory 
exudate and appear upon the surface as an adherent mass. 

The mesenteric lymph-glands through whicli the lymph passes from 
the infected mucosa are tumefied and may be congested and hem- 
orrhagic. In the subacute or chronic cases the central portion of the 
lymph-glands may be necrotic. The peritoneum adjacent to the in- 
volved intestine is invariably affected with a subacute or chronic in- 
flammation. The peritoneal inflammation is manifested in the early 
stages by an excessive outpouring of serous fluids, but as the process 
continues there is a tendency to organization and limited fibrous 
proliferation which is prone to produce adhesions. 

"When complicated with the filtrable virus disease, the lesions of in- 
fectious necrotic enteritis and those that are attributed to hog chol- 
era prevail. In the combination of the two diseases the lym})li-gland 
lesions are more prominent than in infectious necrotic enteritis. 

Infectious necrotic enteritis and swine plague sometimes occur 
simultaneously in an animal, and the pulmonary lesions of swine 
plasrue will then be noted in addition to the lesions of enteritis. 

Those cases of infectious necrotic enteritis complicated with i)ara- 
typhoid infections are sometimes difficult to differentiate from the le- 
sions occurring in hog cholera and infectious enteritis. The involve- 
ment of the peritoneum is probably more i]itense in paratyphoid in- 
fections and the adhesions are more marked. 

Sfjmptoms. — The symptoms of infectious necrotic enteritis are vari- 
able, and the intensity of the symptoms manifested is not proportioned 
to the intensity and extent of the lesions. Hogs apparentlv in the best 
of health may reveal lesions indicative of a chronic infectious enteri- 
tis on autopsy while swine manifesting the usual symptoms of this 
disease may show very limited lesions on autopsy. The infection acts 
more rapidly and is more destructive in some cases and is slow "'oiny 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 313 

and rarely fatal in other cases, but with our present knowledge it 
does not seem advisable to attempt a symptomatic classification of 
tliis disease into acute and chronic types. 

Usually the first symptom noted is depression. This disease may 
affect only a few animals in a herd or a few animals may be af- 
fected at one time and they either die or recover and others in the 
same herd become infected, the disease thus ultimately affecting all 
swine on a given farm. In other instances practically all of the swine 
show evidence of the disease at the same time. They are dull and sep- 
arate themselves from the other swine. Appetite is diminished, al- 
though it may not be noted by the caretaker. In some outbreaks 
the first evidence of the disease noted is the general dullness. The 
owners will report that a large percentage of the hogs lack activity 
and appear dull and depressed. As the disease progresses digestive 
derangements become more evident and are manifested by irregular 
appetite and diarrhea. The aft'ected individuals at this stage appear 
unthrifty, have rough coats and arched backs. The fecal discharges 
are quite fluid and of variable color, depending upon the feed. The 
affected individuals become emaciated, thin and weak and may die of 
exhaustion or they may ultimately recover. The temperature varies 
from normal to 105 or 106 degrees F. during the active stage of the 
disease, but in the later stages it is not unusual to record subnormal 
temperatures. In uncomplicated cases, no pulmonary disturbances 
are manifested. 

Course. — The course of the disease is very irregular. In some 
cases it is of only a few days' duration, while in other instances indi- 
vidual animals may be affected for several wrecks. 

Diagnosis. — The identification of this disease requires an autopsy 
of one or more cadavers. The characteristic lesion upon which judg- 
ment is based occurs in the intestine and consists of an inflammation 
in which some of the involved tissue has become necrotic and is ad- 
herent to the intestinal mucosa. The finding of these lesions when 
coupled with a definite history of the outbreak and observation of the 
leading symptoms — irregular appetite, diarrhea, dullness and varia- 
ble temperature — is usually sufficient evidence upon w^hieh a posi- 
tive diagnosis can be made. 

Differential diagnosis. — Although it is not difficult to make a diag- 
nosis of infectious necrotic enteritis it will retiuire careful considera- 
tion to exclude other diseases or identify complications. In differen- 
tiating infectious necrotic enteritis from other infections, it is essen- 



314 SWINE PRACTICE 

tial to carefully consider the history and symptoms as well as lesions. 
Hog cholera invariably has a sudden onset, a large percentage of a 
herd being simultaneously affected, and anorexia is a prominent 
symptom; whereas, infectious necrotic enteritis has a relatively slow 
onset, and the affected animals have irregular appetites. If hog 
cholera and infectious necrotic enteritis occur simultaneously the his- 
tory and symptoms would typify hog cholera and it will be necessary 
to identify the combination by the lesions revealed in autopsy which 
would consist of petechial hemorrhages in the lung, subserous struc- 
tures, kidney, bladder and spleen, and congestion of tlie skin and 
hemorrhages in various lymph-glands which typify cholera as well 
as the lesions of infectious necrotic enteritis in the intestinal mucosa 
and peritoneum. 

Swine plague of the septicemic or pulmonary type is relatively 
common and may occur independently or as a complication of infec- 
tious necrotic enteritis. The septicemic form of swine plague has a 
sudden onset and rapid course. Many animals are simultaneously 
affected and the lesions consist of submucous and subserous hem- 
orrhages, congestion of the skin and lymph-glands, and in some in- 
stances there is pulmonary edsma. These clinical and postmortem 
findings are sufficiently distinctive for the identification of this form 
of swine plague. If the septicemic form of swine plague and infec- 
tious necrotic enteritis occur simultaneously, the history and s^ni- 
toms would characterize swine plague and the existence of inflam- 
matory necrotic intestinal lesions would identify infectious necrotic 
enteritis. The pulmonary form of swine plague is characterized by 
cough and dyspnea in various degrees, sufficiently distinctive from 
symptoms of infectious necrotic enteritis that diagnosis should not b(» 
difficult. 

The simultaneous existence of the pulmonary form of swine plague 
and infectious necrotic enteritis will evidence a combination of symp- 
toms indicating involvement of the thoracic and abdominal organs, 
but an autopsy will reveal an atypical catarrhal pneumonia in which 
there is an interlobular infiltration and there may or may not be a 
fibrinous pleurisy lesion typifying pulmonary swine plague, and in 
addition there Mali be found intestinal lesions characterizing infec- 
tious necrotic enteritis. 

Parasitic pneumonia occurring separately or as a complication of 
infectious necrotic enteritis is sufficiently prevalent to be given con- 
sideration in differential diagnosis. The inicom))licated cases are 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 315 

characterized by pulmonary symptoms, sufficiently distinctive to ex- 
clude infectious necrotic enteritis. A combination of parasitic pneu- 
monia and infectious necrotic enteritis may be identified by the dem- 
onstration of parasites in the lung- lesions and by the inflammatory 
necrotic lesions in the intestine. 

Paratyphoid infections occur in swine, but tlie sympt(mis and le- 
sions produced have not been positively determined, verified and re- 
corded. It is probable that paratyphoid infections occur most fre- 
quently ill garbage-fed hogs. Accumulation of dark colored blood in 
file skin and subcutis producing" the "blue belly" is probably a 
characteristic lesion of paratyphoid infection. The spleen is usually 
extensively enlarged. By a careful consideration of the foregoing 
paratyphoid infection may be identified. 

Intestinal necrobacillosis is characterized by lesions consisting of 
coagulation necrosis in wliich tlie necrotic tissue later becomes caseous. 
The necrobacillosis lesions are circumscribed yellowish or brownish 
areas containing- a dry, mealy, cheese-like substance emitting a pun- 
gent disagreeable odor. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis should be guarded. If the infection is 
relatively mild the percentage of deaths will be small but the loss of 
condition of the affected animals may produce an extensive economic 
loss. 

Control. — Sanitary requirements are frequently ignored by the 
hog feeder and breeder. Although infectious necrotic enteritis may 
occur in swine that are maintained in clean pens and properly housed 
it is much more prevalent in swine that are kept in mud and filth. 
There is a tendency for the larger feeders to keep too many hogs in 
one lot, a method that is conducive to the rapid spread of any infec- 
tious disease. Men who are most successful in swin(> husbandry care- 
fully watch their herds and the first indication of any defect or dis- 
ease is sufficient cause for isolation of the affected animal. Quaran- 
tine is the first principle in controlling the spread of infection and 
to be most effective isolation should be absolute. Rigid enforcement 
of quarantine regulations in the early stages of infectious necrotic 
enteritis will materially diminisli the losses occasioned by this disease. 
Stocker hogs that have l)een purchased and immunized at market 
centers frequently become affected with infectious necrotic enteritis. 
Shipped in stocker hogs or breeding hogs should be kept in quaran- 
tine for three weeks. Slop foods of good (juality should l)e provided 
for affected animals. They sliould lie kept in comfortable quarters 



316 SWINE PRACTICE 

and the droppings should be gathered daily, disinfected and properly 
disposed of. All dead animals should be burned or buried sufficiently 
deep and limed to destroy infection. 

Prevention. — The indications are that infectious necrotic enteritis 
is due to microbian invasion of the intestinal mucosa and to the pro- 
duction of an inflammatory necrotic lesion. It seems probable that 
the B. suipestifer is the primary causative factor; however, a host 
of other microbian agents are always i)resent and no doubt are a 
factor in this disease. In the control of the B. suipestifer, which is 
probably tlie specific cause, including the sources of infection and 
avenues of entrance, the associated microbian agents will be of no 
consequence. The B. suipestifer, according to recent experiments, 
does not inhabit the intestine of normal swine ; therefore, its pres- 
ence signifies a carrier or a diseased animal. The organism is elim- 
inated in the fecal discharges, and soils, feed and water become con- 
taminated. Pens, lots, sheds and runs that have been occupied by 
diseased animals should be thoroughly cleaned and the litter properly 
disposed of and disinfected before other animals are placed therein. 
Intestinal parasites predispose to infection with the B. suipestifer. 
and all swine should be periodically "wormed out." 

Various biologic agents claimed to be of value as immunizing 
agents are available. The B. suipestifer produces an endotoxin and 
it is probable that an opsonic immunity can be produced by a bac- 
terin made of the B. suipestifer. Tlie reports from the successful 
use of such a bacterin are found in practically all veterinary jour- 
nals. Most bacterins recommended for prevention of infectious 
necrotic enteritis include the B. suipestifer, suisepticus, coli com- 
munis, paratyphoid and B. of Gaertner. Such products are usually 
marketed as "Mixed Bacterin (Swine)." Extensive losses in stock 
hogs, that had been simultaneously immunized against hog cholera 
in public markets, have been due to infectious necrotic enteritis. 
According to reports, the losses in stock due to this disease have 
been materially diminished by the use of mixed bacterin, administered 
when the swine are immunized against cholera and the losses were 
reduced to a mininnmi in those shipments in which a second injection 
of the mixed bacterin was given five to seven days after the first. 
The administration of bacterin to all exposed swine on a farm is 
advisable, and some practitioners claim to have produced beneficial 
results by the use of bacterin as a curative agent. 

Treaiment. — Affected swine should Ije provided with easily digest- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 317 

ible slop foods and placed in comfortable quarters. Intestinal anti- 
septics are indicated. The antiseptic selected should be such as can 
be administered in the slop. Copper sulphate is probably as efficient 
as any other and has the advanta^i'e of being- relatively cheap. From 
one to two-dram doses may be administered daily in the slop or if 
the affected animal does not eat, the copper sulphate should be given 
in capsules. Some practitioners advocate the use of mixed baeterin, 
repeating the dose in five to seven days. 

Necrobacillosis 

Necrobacillosis is a name for a group of diseased conditions caused 
by the Bacillus necrophorus and characterized by inflammation and 
necrosis. This condition is of common occurrence in one form or 
other in various locations in the United States and in other countries. 
The state of Colorado has suffered extensive losses from necrobacil- 
losis; in fact, according- to Glover, the losses from this disease in 
that state prior to 1912 were greater than the losses from cholera. 
The disease occurs sporadically, enzootically, and rarely as an epi- 
zootic. 

Etiology. — Various insanitary conditions may be predisposing fac- 
tors. Diminished resistance of the tissues, as catarrhal enteritis, 
injury of the skin and buccal mucosa, favors infection. 

The Bacillus necrophorus is the specific cause of necrobacillosis. 
This microorganism is universally distributed, though the intestinal 
tract of swine may be its natural habitat. The Bacillus necrophorus 
is pleomorphic, but usually occurs in long threads in cultures and 
in the invaded tissues. It contains granules, particularly in old cul- 
tures. It is iionmotile and does not form spores. It is a strict 
anaerobe and grows well in serum agar, bouillon, and milk. A pun- 
gent, disagreeable odor is evolved from the cultures, and may also 
be recognized in the lesions. It stains readily with practically all of 
the aniline dyes but not with Gram's stain. 

The Bacillus necrophorus produces disease by products that it 
elaborates and eliminates into the tissue. This microorganism is 
pathogenic for practically all animals ; but as a rule it is only a 
secondary invader, the tissue resistance having been diminished by 
previous disease process or by injury. Inoculations of cultures of the 
Bacillus necrophorus produce necrosis, or abscess formation, in cattle, 
sheep, swine, and horses. 

Source of i7hfection. — The Bacillus necropliorus inhabits the diges- 



318 



SWINE PRACTICE 



tive tube of swine and, less frequently, the digestive tube of other 
animals; therefore the microorganism is found in the feces of prac- 
tically all animals. Soil, yards, pens, tioors — in fact, practically all 
of the surroundings — easily become contaminated with fecal matter, 
and the disease may be obtained from anything that has been con- 
taminated with feces. Infection is usually iudirect, although the 
Bacillus necrophorus may he transmitted from an atfected to a 
healthy animal by contact. 

Chamiel of entrance. — This infective agent may be su"cessfuUy 
introduced into the susceptible swine in food or drink by way of tlie 
mouth, upon inhaled dust particles by way of the respiratory organs, 
or it may be introduced through abrasions of the skin, and, more 
rarely, into the genital organs during cop\dation. 




Fig. 9o. .\i:( H()i'..\( ii.i.dsi.' 



Lesions. — The Bacillus necrophorus is capable of invading prac- 
tically any tissue of the l)ody, and the lesions produced so closely 
resemble each other than one general descri})tiou will sutfice. Tlie 
lesion consists of a coagulation necrosis, the necrotic material later 
becoming caseated. The local lesion has a tendency to become larger, 
due to the infiltration of the surrounding tissue with the products 
of the Bacillus necroi)horns. The infection, and therefore the lesions, 
may occur elsewhere in the bcxly, due to metastasis. There may be 
general emaciation due to absorption of the products of the Bacillus 
necrophorus, and tissue destruction. 

The local specific lesion is a sliarply circmnscribed yellowish or 
brownish area containing a liomogeneous, dry, mealy, or cheese-like 
substance from which a pungent and disagreeable odor emanates. 



INFECTIons DISEASES ol9 

Microscopic examination of a se<'tion of one of these areas reveals a 
central inass of tissue debris composed of disinteg'rating and de- 
stroyed cells which do not stain. Surrounding the necrotic area is 
a zone made u)) of leukocytes, damao'ed tissue cells, and corisiderable 
numbers of Hacilhis necrophoi-us filaments arranged in bundles. Th.^ 
surrounding- tissue evidences a severe reaction by hyperemia, and the 
presence of large numbers of leukocytes and a few Bacilli neero- 
phorus. 

Neerobacillosis assumes many different forms, the most common of 
which. are necrotic stomatitis, enteritis, rhinitis, pneumonia, hepatitis, 
splenitis, vaginitis, and dermatitis. 

NECROTIC STO.M ATmS 

Necrotic stomatitis is pi'obably the most common form of neero- 
bacillosis. It is of fre(iuent occurrence in suckling pigs. 

Lesions and syinptonis. — The intlamniation usually begins at the 
margins of the gums. The successive changes in the affected areas 
are as follows: The surface is red or bluish red, becomes tumefied, 
IS very sensitive, and bleeds easily. Two or three days later the 
area becomes yellowish white or even brown in color and of a mushy 
consistency, and usually sloughs, leaving an eroded surface which 
is covered by a coagulated iiecrotic tissue and appears as a diph- 
theritic membrane. The surrounding tissue becomes red, tumefied, 
and sensitive. The disease process gradually extends and ultimately 
becomes continent, forming large eroded ai'eas. A similar process 
frequently affects the lips simultaneously. 

The affected pigs frequently attempt to nurse, but the gums are so 
sensitive that they obtain little nourishment. Pigs may transmit 
the disease to the teats of their mother by nursing. There is saliva- 
tion and ehami)ing of the teeth. Upon inspection the foregoing 
lesions are observed and a peculiar disagreeable odor is also noted 
which may permeate the air and be recognized at a considerable dis- 
tance. As the disease progresses the discharged saliva becomes bloody 
and contains shreds of tissue. 

The course of this disease varies from a few days in the acute form 
to several weeks in the chronic form. 

Diagnosis. — The identification of necrotic stomatitis is not difficult 
if the typical necrotic lesions are observed and the peculiar offensive 
odor is recognized. 

Treatment. — In the early stages the treatment of the cases may be 



320 SWINE PRACTICE 

' successful, but in tlie advanced stages tlie disease usually proves fatal 
regardless of treatmei;t. The most successful treatment consists in 
washing- the oral cavity and applying upon the eroded areas one- 
percent solutions of silver nitrate or three-to tive-percent solutions of 
zinc chlorid. Local treatment should he rejieated frequently. 

NECROTIC ENTERITIS 

Bacillus necrophorus infection may occur in the intestinal mucosa 
and produce lesions similar to tliose in necrotic stomatitis. 

NECROTIC RHINITIS 

This condition is usually associated with necrosis of the snout and 
frequently also of th- lii)s, and is of rather common occurrence in 
small pigs. It is oiu' of the conditions that constitutes the disease called 
sniffles. Sniffles also includes infectious rhinitis, particularly those 
cases in which deformity of the snout and nasal cavities occurs, and 
those cases of rickets in which there is involvement of the nasal and 
facial bones, causing more or less deformity. 

Lesions. — Necrol)acillosis of the schneiderian mucous membrane and 
the snout is characterized by the same lesions that are characteristic 
of necrotic stomatitis, except that here bone tissue is frequently in- 
volved, resulting in fibrous proliferation and deformity of the parts. 

Symptoms. — The affected animals hav(^ a tendency to root consid- 
erably in their food, but they eat little. Tlie characteristic symptom 
consists of a peculiar blowing noise. The animals sneeze, and occa- 
sionally expel l)loody material containing shreds of tissue. The snout 
becomes enlarged and the face bulging, this condition freciucntly 
being called elephant head. 

Treatment. — It is not possible to treat these cases efficiently because 
of the difficulty of applying medicaments to the lesion and further 
because of the destructive changes in the bones of the nose and face. 

NECROTIC PNEC.MONIA 

Necrotic pneumonia is frequently an associated condition of necrotic 
rhinitis, the infection taking place by tlie inhalation of necrotic par- 
ticles from the nose. 

Lesions. — The same general coagulation necrosis type of lesions that 
characterizes necrobacillosis is observed also in necrotic pneumonia. 

Symptoms. — Manifestations of the disease are similar to those of 



iNFECTIors DISEASES 321 

croupous pneumonia, though evidence of septic intoxication is more 
pronounced than in the latter. The very offensive odor of the expired 
air characterizes pulmonary necrobacillosis. 

Treatment. — Treatment other than providing good, nourishing food 
and sanitary surroundings is of little or no avail. 

NECROTIC IIEI'ATITIS 

Hepatic iiecrohacillosis is not of common occurrence, l)ut some cases 
have been observed. It is usually secondary to necrotic enteritis, the 
infection passing througli the iiortal system and metastasizing in the 
liver. * 1 . * jh 

Lcs^uHs. — Tlie lesions consist of sharply circumscribed grayish 
white areas varying in size from that of a pinhead to a silver dollar. 
These areas may be surrounded by a fibrous capsule. The density or 
consistency of the lesion depends upon its age. It may be of the 
same consistency as the surrounding liver, it may be dry and mealy, 
or, if the animal recovers, it may become calcareous. These areas may 
not cause any irregularity in the size or shape of the liver or the 
lesion may assume the nodular form, the nodules projecting from the 
surface of the liver. The surface nodules have a raised border and a 
de])ressed center, and are quite characteristic in appearance. 

l!^y)iipto))is. — No definite symptoms have been attributed to hepatic 
necrobacillosis other than geiieral digestive derangement. These cases 
are diagnosed at autopsy. 

Treatment. — The location of the lesions and the nature of the 
process practically eliminate the possibility of successful treatment. 

NECROTIC SPLENITIS 

Splenic necrosis is a ratlier common condition in swine. It may be 
caused by other agencies than the Bacillus necrophorus, but from in- 
vestigations thus far conducted it appears that the most frequent 
cause of necrosis of the spleen is the Bacillus necrophorus. This con- 
dition is commonly associated Avitli the use of a contaminated hog- 
cholera virus. The infection is carried in the blood to the spleen. 

Lesions. — The necrotic centers in the sjileen are usually encap- 
sulated, the density of the capsule varying with the length of duration 
of the process. As a rule, the centers are in the form of nodules. They 
are'of a grayish-white color and usually have a depressed center and a 
raised border. Tn size these foci varv from masses half an incii in 



322 SWINE PRACTICE 

diameter to irre^iilar masses from one to three iiiehes in diameter. 
There may be only a few centers, bnt nsually there are many ; in some 
instances so numerous are they that it is difficult to identify any nor- 
mal splenic tissue. The non-encapsulated lesions are dirty-white cen- 
ters and ji'ive the ap])earance of having' l)een painted in the splpui:' 
tissue. 

Symptoms are indistinct, and treatment cannot be applied. 

VAGINAL XUIA'AR AND PRP^ITTIAL NKf'ROSIS 

Necrotic va<iinitis and vulvitis occur, but are not prevalent. Infec- 
tion probably <iains (Mitrance throuoh abrasions produced at the time 
of parturition or copulation, or, more rarely, by means of accidental 
traumatic wounds. The h'sions consist of tumefaction, redness, and 
sensitiveness, followed by necrosis. The necrotic tissue may become 
desiccated and slouji'h, or it may be converted into a mushy mass. The 
erosion of the vulva may destroy the vulvar tissue and even the anal 
tissue. Dense masses of tibrous tissue usually develop in the peri- 
necrotic zone, which later cicatrize and produce various distortions 
of the vulvo-anal structures. 

Infection of the i)repuce may gain entrance throug'h abrasions pro- 
duced by inliammation that has resulted from irritation from urine, 
screw worms, or similar causes. Infection may also be favored by 
traumatic injuries of various kinds. The lesions are of the same gen- 
eral nature as those observed in vulvitis. The prepuce occasionally 
becomes entirely destroyed, and sometimes the penis becomes involved. 

The vulvar and pre])utial lesions sometimes interfere with, and even 
inhibit urination, resulting in retention of urine. In such cases in 
the male the sheath may become enormously distended with urine. 

Treatment. — Treatment is contined to the local aj)[)lication of som." 
penetrating disinfectant. Those lesions that become necrotic are 
removed in order that the disinfectant may have free access to the 
invaded tissue. Adhesions and other conditions that obstruct the 
urine should be corrected, at least temporarily, in order that the urine 
may be voided and thus uremic poisoning prevented. 

NECROTIC DERMATITIS 

Necrotic dermatitis, aside from the type affecting the lips, vulva, 
and prepuce, is sometimes encountered. It is of most frequent occur- 
rence in young pigs, and atfects any portion of the body. Infection 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



323 



of tlie skill by Bacillus ucci-oplionis is prohahly jiossihlc only tlirougii 
fibrasions and wounds. 

Lesions. — Tlie lesions are praelieally the same as in other super- 
ficial necrobacillosis. Not infrequently large areas slough, leaving 
irregular denuded surfaces. This condition is frequently fatal, par- 
ticularly in those eases having extensive infection where absorption of 
the products is sufficient to insure systemic disturbance. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists of removing necrotic tissue and 
applying some antiseptic that will readily penetrate the infected area. 
The treatment must be persistent, as relief cannot be obtained frnin 
one application. 




t^ Sir o ^'' 




Fig. f(4. F.VT XECRosis (Omentum I. A. normal fat; B, areas of necrosis. 



UNUSUAL P^OR.MS OP NECROBACILLOSIS 

Necrobacillosis sometimes occurs in the various structures of the eye. 
This is a serious condition, as the agents used in combatting the 
Bacillus necrophorus have to be used in such concentration that they 
are injurious to the eye. The usual outcome of ocular necrobacillosis 



324 SWINE PRACTICE 

is destruction of the eye, and if both eyes are involved the animal 
becomes blind and usually has to be destroyed. 

Necrobacillosis as a sequel of castration has been previously dis- 
cussed. 

Necrobacillosis is a disease that may affect practically any and all 
tissues of swine and is of considerable economic importance. The 
most common forms of the disease are necrotic stomatitis and enteritis, 
and necrosis of the sheath. 

Paratyphoid Infection 

Paratyphoid bacilli, particularly the one designated as paratyphoid 
B., has been isolated from a disease condition in swine. In some cases 
this bacillus was obtained in pure cultures direct from the lesions of 
swine that were in the advanced stages of disease when destroyed for 
autopsy purposes. 

This infection occurs primarily in swine in feed lots, particularly 
when the lots are overstocked and are in an insanitai-y condition. 
The disease in which the paratyphoid B. is associated may be acute 
or sub-acute and the atfection has been observed in feeder swine that 
had been simultaneously immunized a month or six weeks prior to the 
outbreak. 

The lesions noted on autopsy in these cases consisted of a marked 
enlargement of the spleen and an enteritis. There may also be tume- 
faction and infiltration of the lymph-glands. In some of these cases 
there was also observed a blue or purple discolorization of the skin on 
the ventral surface of the abdomen. Very limited hemorrhages were 
observed in the mesenteric lymph-glands in one or two cases. The 
blood is usually dark in color and does not coagulate readily. 

The first evidence of the disease is usually inappetence or diminished 
appetite, the affected animal appearing depressed and having little 
tendency to move. There is constipation at the onset, but it is usually 
succeeded by diarrhea. There is rise of temperature and tliere may be 
congestion of the skin. In the acute type of the disease the affected 
animals usually die within two days after the onset. In the subacute 
or chronic form the affected animals may linger for several days and 
may ultimately recover, although they are apparently pprmanently 
damaged. The swine in the subacute type rapidly emaciate and be- 
come weakened. 

The field diagnosis of this condition is difficult and the positive 



INF^ECTIOUS DISEASES 323 

diagnosis should be done by laboratory procedure. The enlarged and 
engorged spleen is apparently the outstanding lesion. 

Treatment. — Treatment in the acute attacks has not proved suc- 
cessful. A bacterin made from the paratyphoid B. has been reported 
as valuable in preventing this disease, and according to some this 
bacterin has been successfully used in the subacute form of the disease. 

Salmonellosis 

Salmonellosis is the name of a disease of swine caused by the B. sui- 
pestifer. The occurrence of a disease caused by the B. suipestifer 
has been experimentally demonstrated ; however, the actual occurrence 
of the disease as a distinct entity is difficult to identify. It is possible 
that the condition now designated as infectious necrotic enteritis and 
attributed to various microbian agents will be demonstrated to be 
salmonellosis. The significance of the B. suipestifer is not fully appre- 
ciated by practitioners and many investigators, but it is no doubt an 
important factor in the diseases of swine. 

Malignant Edema 

Malignant edema is a specitic infective disease caused by the 
Bacillus edematis maligni. Pasteur described this disease in 1878 and 
it was later investigated by Koch and others. 

This disease is relatively common in swine, althougli reports of 
cases in literature are rare, probably because of the failure to recog- 
nize the disease. Porcine malignant edema occurs most freqneJitly as 
a sequel to immunization with anti-hog cholera serum, castration or 
other surgical operations. Cases of malignant edema occurring in 
recently immunized swine have been observed in which 50 per cent 
of the immunized swine died. The disease has also been observed in 
swine that had been hyperimmunized for serum production and it has< 
also been reported to occur in virus pigs in serum establishments. 
Some sporadic cases of malignant edema have been reported or at 
least the B. edematis maligni were isolated from lesions. 

Etiology.- — The specific cause of this disease is the B. edemati? 
maligni, an anaerobic spore-bearing microorganism. These micro- 
organisms are found in the soil and also occur in the digestive tract of 
some animals. They are distinct bacillary microorganisms when iso- 
lated from the tissue of an affected animal, but fhey grow into long 
filaments after the deatli of an infected animal and in artificial culture 
media : 



826 SWINE PRACTICE 

Tile H. ccleiiiatis malign i varies in lengtli fruiu 2 to 4 microns, 
although the filaments in culture media may become 15 microns in 
length. These microorganisms average about one micron in diameter. 
They are freely motile and stain readily with the ordinary aniline 
dyes. Spore formation causes a slight bulging of the baeillary walls. 
The spores are very resistant to external influences. 

These organisms are strictly anaerobic. They grow at room temper- 
ature on any ordinary culture medium. Gelatine is liquefied and stab 
cultures in agar show development of gas. 

Predisposing causes are of prime importance in the occurrence of 
malignant edema in swine. The injui-y incidental to the injection of 
serum or virus in the simultaneous immunization provides a favorable 
field for the development of the bacilli which may be introduced with 
the serum of virus but are more fre(juently carried into the tissues 
by the needle from the contaminated skin or may gain access through 
the needle puncture. Insanitary pens, lots and sheds favor the de- 
velopment of malignant edema in swine. Swine that are filthy or 
muddy should not be immunized because of the danger of infection of 
the needle puncture with the bacillus of malignant edema. 

Operative wounds incidental to castration, scrotal hernia, ablation 
of mammary glands and cesarean section should be properly protected 
as the surrounding tissues have a diminished resistance due to the 
operative procedure, otherwise infection and the development of malig- 
nant edema may occur. The ringing or ear-marking of swine also 
provides a favorable field for infection. Parturition is an important 
predisposing factor and it is probable that many of the cases of so- 
called septic metritis are malignant edema. 

Source of infection. — Infection with the B. edematis maligni is 
obtained most frequently from soil or fecal discharges. Serum or 
virus may be contaminated at the biologic establishment producing it, 
but is more frequently contaminated in the field by dust gaining 
access to the serum or virus containers. Some outbreaks of malignant 
edema have been traced to syringes that have not been sterilized 
previous to use. In many instances the recently imminiized oi- 
castrated swine have not been placed and maintained in clean (juarters 
by the owners, as instructed by the veterinarian and the needle punc- 
tures or operative wounds have become contaminated and infection 
with the B. edamitis maligni resulted. 

Chainie's of entrance of infection.. — Malignant edema is practically 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 327 

always a wound infection disease; therefore infection in the majority 
of instances gains entrance through injuries or wounds. 

Lesions. — The first manifestation of wound infective malignant 
edema consists of a marked tumefaction of the surrounding structures. 
The tumefied tissues will be found edematous and deep-seated gas may 
be detected by palpation. If the tumefied structures are incised a 
bloody serum having a fetid odor will escape. The extent of the 
swelling varies and depends upon the density of the tissue and the 
virulence of the infection. In some cases the tumefaction extends 
some distance from the infected wound. By autopsy these tumefac- 
tions are found to be a mass of infiltrated disintegrated tissue, having 
a very offensive odor. The subcutis and muscle are extensively in- 
filtrated with a semi-solid gelatinous material. The related lymph- 
glands are usually tumefied and edematous. The visceral organs 
usually have a parboiled appearance. 

In cases of malignant edema succeeding castration or other opera- 
tions which permit of extension of infection to the peritoneum, the 
lesions consist of peritonitis in which the peritoneal blood-vessels are 
engorged and there are varying quantities of a serosanguineous fluid 
in the peritoneal cavity. The connective tissues in the inguinal 
region are usually slightly infiltrated. The spleen may be dark in 
color. 

Metritis due to the B, edematis maligni is characterized by a deep 
red color of the uterine mucosa and a bloody effusion into the uterine 
cavity. The uterine walls are infiltrated and the entire uterine struc- 
ture is more or less degenerated and emits a foul odor. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms evidenced by wound infective malig- 
nant edema are: depression, disturbance of locomotion, inappetence, 
edematous swellings and rise of temi)erature. These symptoms usually 
develop in from twelve hours to two days after the wound is infected. 
In peritoneal malignant edema the affected animal lias a "tucked up" 
appearance and manifests pain when the abdomen is palpated. There 
will be rise of temperature and inappetence. Septic metritis is evi- 
denced by an arched back, bloody discharge from the genitals, high 
t( mi)erature and anorexia. iMalignant edema is fatal in a large per- 
centage of eases. The course of the disease is short ; the animals suc- 
cumb on the second or third day. 

Treatment. — Treatment of malignant edema in swine has not proved 
successful. A preventive vaccine has been experimentally demon- 



528 



SWINE PRACTICE 



strated to protect against natural infection in other animals and 
probably would be equally valuable in swine. 

This disease can be prevented by sterilization of instruments, the 
proper after-care of immunized swine and swine that have been oper- 
ated upon. 

Anthrax (Charbon) 

Anthrax is a specific infective disease caused by the B. anthracis and 
characterized by changes in the blood, spleen and lymph-glands. 

This disease prevails in some sections of the country, but occurs 
more frequently in mules, horses, cattle and sheep than in swine. 
Many cases have been reported in swine from different localities, but 
fortunately tlie outbreaks have been confined to a few animals, or at 
least to one farm. Porcine anthrax usually occurs in swine that have 
been fed the carcass of an animal dead of anthrax. 

Etiology. — The specific cause of antlirax is the B. anthracis. Tlie 
B. anthracis is a roil-sliaped non-motile bacterium averaging about 4 

microns in length and 1 to \% mic- 
ron in diameter. This bacterium is 
c'liaracterized by relatively square or 
concave ends when obtained from 
lesions. They stain readily with 
ordinary aniline dyes. Oval spores 
form in the center of the rods. Spores 
of the B. anthracis are very resistant 
to external infiuenees, to chemical dis- 
infectants, and to the usual means of 
sterilization. 

The B. anthracis is areobic and 
grows readily on any ordinary cul- 
ture medium at body temperature. 
Long threads of filaments are common in cultures of B. anthracis. 

Source of ififection. — The most common and usual source of infec- 
tion from B. anthracis in swine is from the discharges and carcasses 
of animals dead of anthrax. More rarely infection may be obtained 
from contaminated water, feed or soil. 

Channel of Entrance. — The usual channel of entrance of the B. 
anthracis in swine is the digestive tract in feed or water. 

Lesions. — Anthrax in swine is usually localized in the lieginning. 
although it frequently becomes generalized or of the septicemic type 




Fig. 95. BACILLUS ANTHRACIS. 

(From Hutyra & Marek.) 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 329 

before death. The lesion in the beginning consists of a tumefaction in 
the sub-maxillary or pharyngeal region. The extent of the tumefac- 
tion varies. In some cases the swelling may be so extensive that the 
eyes are closed, the ear pendulous and the entire head distorted. 

The characteristic lesions of generalized anthrax are : The blood 
appears like tar and does not coagulate readily. Hemorrhages of 
varying size occur in practically all tissues. The lymph-glands are 
tumefied and edematous. The spleen is enlarged and the splenic pulp 
soft. All of the foregoing lesions vary according to the length of 
duration of the disease. 

The local lesion of anthrax in swine is usually located in the 
pharyngeal region and consists of a marked serous inflannnation with 
infiltration of quantities of serogelatinous exudate, causing extensive 
tumefaction. The mucosa of the pharynx, larynx and sometimes the 
trachea, mouth and nares show marked inflammatory changes. 

Syniptoms. — Swelling in the submaxillary or ])haryngeal region is 
usually the first symptom evidenced. The affected swine are dull and 
listless. The appetite is usually normal in the beginning. The ocular 
mucosa is congested. As the disease progresses deglutition becomes 
difficult and there may l)o difficulty in breathing. In some cases 
the animals will sit on tlieir haunches and gasp and may die of 
suffocation. 

This disease runs a rapid course, the affected animals rarely living 
over 24 hours after the first symptoms appear. 

Treatment. — Anthrax in swine usually occurs in animals that have 
been fed carcasses of animals dead of anthrax or Avaste from packing 
houses or tanneries and therefore can be prevented by prohibiting 
food from those sources. The treatment of affected animals with anti- 
anthrax serum has proved of value in other animals and is worthy of 
trial in swine. Exposed animals should be immunized by the anti- 
anthrax serum. Carcasses of swine dead of anthrax should be burned 
and the premises cleaned and disinfected. 

Tuberculosis 

Tuberculosis is a specific infective disease caused by the tubercle 
bacillus and characterized by the formation of tubercles. 

History.— Tuberculosis has been recognized from the remotest time 
in the history of man as a prevalent disease of mankind. In 1689 the 
tubercle was identified by Morton as the typical lesion of tuberculosis. 
Various investigators have given additional knowledge on the subject 



330 SWINE PRACTICE 

of tuberculosis. In 1865 Villemiii proved the infectiousness of the 
disease, while Koch discovered the tubercle bacillus in 1882, thus 
establishing firmly the theory of the infectiousness of tuberculosis. 
The study of tuberculosis has been advanced and its recognition clin- 
ically has been made possible by the use of tuberculin, which was dis- 
covered by Koch in 1890. In 1901 he startled the scientific world by 
announcing at the tuberculosis congress in London that iiunian and 
bovine tuberculosis were separate and distinct diseases, a statement 
that was responsible for tlie organization of different scienfific bodies 
that, after careful investigation, reported that although there may be 
some slight difference between the tubercle of human and bovine 
origin, the disease produced is the same and that the disease is inter- 
transmissible between animals and man. 

Occurrence. — Tuberculosis is becoming very prevalent among swine. 
This is due to the fact that the dairying industry is becoming more 
extensive and the by-products of milk are used for swine fe^d. A 
relatively large percentage of dairly cattle is tuberculous, and the in- 
fection gains entrance to the milk on filth that is contaminated with 
infected discharges, such as saliva and feces. The organism may also 
be eliminated direct from the mammary gland into the milk. 

Swine from some sections of the United States have been found by 
experience to be so extensively, tuberculous that some packers will 
buy them only subject to post-mortem inspection. 

In Germany from 2.46 to 2.81 per cent of swine slaughtered at 
abattoirs are condemned on account of tuberculosis. The disease is 
very prevalent in Belgium, France, Norway and Sweden, and procine 
tuberculosis is a common disease in tlie British Isles. According to 
the annual report of the Bureau of Animal Industry for the fiscal 
year of 1911, 29,920,260 carcasses of swine were inspected in abattoirs, 
and of that number 31,517 carcasses and 870,361 parts were con- 
dennied on account of tuberculosis. And, for the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1919, 44,398,389 hogs were slaughtered at official establish- 
ments, of which 65,838 were condemned, and tuberculosis in some 
degree was found in 4,103,377, or gver 9 per cent of the 44,398,389 
swine slaughtered were affected with tuberculosis. The disease is 
becoming more extensive in swine in the United States and should 
receive more consideration flian it docs, as the economic loss annually 
is enormous. 

Etiology. — The cause of tuberculosis is the tubercle hacillufs or the 
Bacillus of Koch. It is a rod-shajx'd organism from 1.5 to 4 microns 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



331 



long and .3 to .5 mk-ron in width, and is nsuall,y curved or slightly 
bent. It may contain granules or the body may be uniform. Tt is 
nonmotile and does not form spores. This organism is covered with a 
waxlike substance which renders it more difficult to stain than ordi- 
nary bacteria, but after the organism has been stained, which can be 
accomplished by applying steaming carbolfuchsin for five minutes, it 
retains the stain even when subjected to the action of acids; for this 
reason it has been called an acid-fast bacterium. It is an aerobe, and 

Tuberculous focus in spinal process of a dorsal 
vertebra 



Tubeiculous 

locus in body 

of dorsal 

vertebra 




Fig. 96. Vertebral tuberculosis in the hog. (Ostertag. ) 



grows with relative slowness. It grows luxuriantly in eg^^ albumen 
culture medium, and fairly Avell on glycerine agar and in glycerine 
bouillon. Tubercle bacilli from ditferent so\irces manifest different 
cultural characteristics, and on this basis some have claimed foui' 
varieties of tubercle bacilli, namely, human, bovine, avian, and rep- 
tilian. The bovine and human types have been encountered in swine. 
The tubercle bacilli are very resistant to external injurious \ni\\h 



332 SWINE PRACTICE 

ences. This resistance is probably due to the waxy coat they possess. 
Direct sunlight destroys them when freely exposed for twenty to 
thirty minutes, but they retain their vitally and virulence for from 
ten to twenty days when exposed to ditfuse daylight. When desiccated 
and not exposed to light they may retain their virulence for four 
months or even longer. In decomposing tubercular tissues they re- 
main virulent for a long time. In milk they retain virulence for ten 
days. Dry heat at 212 degrees Fahrenheit destroys them in one hour ; 
moist heat at the boiling temperature will destroy them in fifteen 
minutes. They are also destroyed by chemical disinfectants, the 
length of time for exposure depending upon th concentration of solu- 
tion and the nature of the tissue or discharge incorporating the bacilli. 
Gastric juice does not destroy the tubercle bacilli, and bile has little 
or no injurious effect upon them. 

The inoculation of healthy, susceptible animals with virulent bacilli 
produces tuberculosis, the extent of the lesions produced depending 
upon the virulence of the bacilli injected and upon the resistance of 
the inoculated animal. 

Source of infection. — Tubercle bacilli are eliminated from the 
affected animals, at least when there are open lesions in organs, the 
secretions or excretions of which pass to the outside world. Thus the 
tubercle bacilli are eliminated in the feces from animals having tuber- 
culous ulcers of the intestinal mucosa. Open tuberculous lesions of 
the respiratory tract would permit of the elimination of the tubercle 
bacilli in the discharge from the air tubes and also in the feces, for 
the chances are that the pharynx would become contaminated by the 
pulmonary or tracheal discharge and this infection would be carried 
with food or drink and ultimately pass from the body in the feces. 
Tubercle bacilli from lesions in the liver or pancreas may also be 
eliminated in the feces. 

Tubercle bacilli from open tubercular lesions of the urogenital 
organs are eliminated in the urine, seminal fluid, or other discharges 
from these organs. Infection is directly eliminated from open, cuta- 
neous, tuberculous lesions, and tubercle bacilli may be eliminated in 
the milk, especialh' if tuberculous lesions exist in the mammary 
gland. 

The dissemination of tubercle bacilli in the body and the possibility 
of their elimination through any channel is facilitated by leukocytes. 
Thus tubercle bacilli in the lung may be incorporated and retained 
by leukocvtes that are later eliminated bv the mammarv cells, and the 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 333 

milk become infected even thongli the mammary gland contain no 
tnbercnlons lesions. 

From the foregoing it is evident that any of the discharges of tuber- 
culous animals may contain the tubercle bacilli. In the United States 
and in practically all other countries tuberculosis of cattle is prevalent, 
particularly among cattle used for dairy purposes. 

The most frequent source of porcine tuberculosis is from tubercu- 
lous cattle. Swine become infected from the infected cow's milk, feces, 
nasal discharges, and the carcasses of tuberculous cattle that are given 
them for food. A limited number of swine become infected from 
garbage that contains the human tubercle bacilli. This has been 
especially observed in swine fed upon garbage from tuberculosis san- 
itaria, or hotels. An occasional case of uterine, ovarian, or testicular 
tuberculosis is the result of direct infection by copulation. It is pos- 




Fig. 97. TUBERCULOSIS OF THE TONGUE. A, normal muscle; B, tuberculous 
lesions; this is a rare condition in swine. 

sible that infection may be transmitted in the exhaled air from in- 
fected to health}^ swine. 

Channels of entrance. — The most frequent channel of entrance of 
the tubercle bacilli in swine is the digestive tube, the infection being 
introduced in food or water. An occasional case may become infected 
by the inhalation of the bacilli and by direct transmission through the 
genital organs. ^lammary tuberculosis may be the result of cutaneous 
infection or it may be transmitted from elsewhere in the body. 

The transmission of the tubercle bacilli from the mother to the 
fetus is possible, but it is of rare occurrence. But a weakened con- 
dition or susceptibility to the disease may and frequently is trans 
mitted from the mother to the fetus. 



334 _ SWINE PRACTICE 

Lesions. — The typical initial lesion of tubereiilosis is the tuherele 
which has been aptly defined as a nonvascular nodnle composed of 
leukocytes, endothelial, giant and connective tissue cells, with a ten 
dency for the central part of the nodule to undergo necrosis. There 
may be a slight variation in the tubercle in different animals, due to 
variation of susceptibility of the animal and variation of the viruleu'-e 
of the infecting bacilli. The typical lesion may also be materially 
modified by secondary lesions. Tuberculous lesions may occur in any 
tissue or organ, but lymphoid tissue is most frequently affected. 

The tubercle bacilli and their products are the causative factors iu 
the formation of a tubercle. Having lodged in a tissue favorable for 
their growth and development, the bacilli begin to multiply and to 
eliminate products that stimulate the surrounding connective tissue 
and endothelial cells to increase in number, and at the same time 
exert a positive chemotactic action upon the leukocytes. In swine 
there is a verv marked chemotactic action and limited stimulation of 




C 

Fig. 98. TUBERCULOSIS OF THE SKix. A, the skin sliowing caseo-calcareous 
lesions; B. subcutaneons fat. C, muscle. 

connective tissue. The typical porcine tuljcrculosis tubercle is largely 
composed of leukocytes and has little fibrous tissue. 

Tubercles grow because of the increased accumulation of leukocytes 
and the formation of a small quantity of fibrous tissue. The tubercle 
contains no blood vessels; that is, it is nonvascular, although in the 
early stages there may be a hypermic zone around the tubercle. This 
hyperemic zone is the restilt of irritation in the tissue, the tubercle 
formation causing a tissue reaction. As the tubercle becomes larger, 
due to the accumulation of leukocytes on the margin, the central part 
begins to degenerate. 

Porcine tubercular lesions are characterized 1)y enlargement of 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 335 

lyMii)liatii* jilaiids. tlic foniiatioii of tubercles of variable sizes in or 
upon serous inenibranes and within tlie substance of glandular organs, 
bones, and other connective tissues. Tlu^ tubercles produce increased 
density of invaded soft tissues and are, therefore, easily detected ex- 
cept in very recent infection. The tubercular nodules in the early 
stages present about the same color as the surface of the tissue invaded. 
In sectioning the tubercle the central portion is caseous and slightly 
yellow, or fibrous and white. Sometimes there is a combination of 
both conditions, and occasionally the tubercles contain calcareous 
granules. The central portion of porcine tubercles rarely contains 
li(inefied necrotic tissue. 

Microscopically, porcine tubercular lesions are always cellular in 
the beginning, the cellular tubercles being fairly constant in structure, 
regardless of the tissue in which they occur. The center is at first rep- 
resented by a mass of lymphoid cells, the other cellular elements occur- 
ring as the tubercle develops. 

Necrosis, or fibrosis, succeeds the cellular stage in the porcine tuber- 
cular lesion. Necrosis of tubercles is probably the result of the activ- 
ity of virulent bacteria or the low resistance of the infected animal. 
The necrotic center may be surrounded by a cellular zone (lymphoid 
and endothelial cells), or it may be surrounded by fibroblasts. The 
necrotic material is invariably caseated and later becomes calcified. 

Fibrous lesions vary from the formation of small quantities of 
fibrous tissue to dense fibrous centers. They are probably produced 
by bacteria of low virulence, or occur in animals having a marked 
resistance. The central portion of the fibrous lesion may become 
calcified. 

The so-called arbor vita? gland is a fibrous center in which the 
fibrous tissue is arranged similarly to the trunk and branches of a 
tree, hence the name. In the hog, this lesion is observed in the cervical 
lymph nodes. The Bacterium tuberculosis has been demonstrated in 
about thirty per cent of arbor vita^ glands. 

The lesions of porcine tuberculosis are in brief either cellular, 
necrotic, and calcified tubercles, or cellular, fibrous and calcified tuber- 
cles. The lesion is always nonvascular, as in other animals. 

Tubercular lesions are most common in the digestive viscera. The 
liver and spleen frequently contain caseous nodules. 

Pulmonary porcine tuberculosis manifests itself either by a few or 
many cheesy foci or by a few large centers. There may be a general 
caseous pneumonia associated with more or less pleurisy. 



336 



SWINE PRACTICE 



Tubercular involvement of the nervous tissue occurs in swine, but 
is relatively rare. One case has been observed in which a tubercular 
center occurred in the cerebral tissue. Tuberculosis of the meninges 
may be local and circumscribed or diffuse and quite general. 

Osseous tuberculosis is of common occurrence in swine. It is found 
especially in the vertebra.^ 

Symptoms. — Tuberculosis is essentially a chronic disease. The onset 
is usually so insidious that no al)normality is suspected, and the 
usual clinical examination of swine is not sufficient to predicate a diag- 

B 



V''|P^% 





Fig. 99. TUBERCx^i.osis OF TiiK PLEfRA. A, rib; B, masses of tubercles. 



nosis because the symptoms are so indistinct. Lymph-gland involve- 
ments result in tumefaction. Tlie enlarged glands are not patho- 
gnomonic of tuberculosis. 

Tubercular invasion of the digestive organs produces indigestion. 
The digestive derangements develop slowly and usually only in young 
pigs. They become unthrifty and emaciated as the disease progresses. 

Pulmonary tuljerculosis is evidenced by a dry, short, suppressed 
cough and bv some difficulty of breathing. The cough becomes more 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 337 

aggravated, and the animals lieeome weak and thin and have a rough 
coat. 

Tuberculosis of the brain, or meninges, is not common and the 
symptoms evidenced will depend upon the location of the lesion. 

Osseous tuberculosis is associated with interference of locomotion 
and tumefaction of the affected bone. 

The length of the course of tuberculosis is variable. In young pigs 
it may produce fatal termination in from two to three months after 
the onset. Older swine rarely die of tuberculosis, as the disease as- 
sumes a chronic form in them and they are usually marketed l)efore 
the disease has manifested itself clinically. 

Diagnosis. — The clinical diagnosis of this disease is practically im- 
possible without the use of the tuberculin test. The lesions may be 
identified and the disease can therefore be recognized at Mutopsy. 

The intradermal tuberculin test is most applicable to swine. This 
test is made by the injection into the dermis at the base of the ear 
of from three to five minims of ordinary tuberculin.* The reaction 
consists of a dense swelling at the point of injection and becomes most 
prominent on the second or third day after injection. 

The subcutaneous tuberculin test may be used, but it is not as a})- 
plicable to swine as it is to cattle. The ophthalmic test may also be 
employed in swine. 

Microscopic examination may be made of the various discharges 
for the purpose of identifying the tubercle bacilli. In making this 
test it must be remembered that there are other acid-fast bacteria 
and further that the absence of tubercle bacilli in the preparations 
examined is not positive proof of the absence of the disease. 

Animal inoculations may be resorted to, particularly in cases in 
which no tuberculin test has been made and there is a dispute as to 
the nature of the lesions found. 

Treatment. — Curative treatment is of no value in porcine tuber- 
culosis. The only rational method is to sell the affected swine subject 
to the post-morteu inspection findings. In this way some value will 
be obtained by the original owner, there will be no loss to the packer 
and no danger to the consumer. 

Tuberculosis is a preventable disease and the losses from it could 
be avoided, or at least materially diminished, by proper control of 
tuberculosis in cattle. With our present farm methods the eradication 
of porcine tuberculosis cannot be accomplished until the disease is 
eradicated in cattle. The judicious use of skimmed milk, including 



338 



SWINE PRACTICE 



])asteiiriziii«>' milk from susjKH-ted cows, will materially diminish tuber- 
ciulosis in milk-fed swine. The tuherenlin testing of steers or other 
cattle and the elimination of all reactors will ])revent the introduction 
of tuberculosis in swine that follow cattle in the feed lots. Cooking 
of garbage will prevent the dissemination of tuberculosis to swine. 
Denver garbage is cooked and fed to swine, and the infection of tuber- 
culosis and hog cholera as well is thus eliminated. 

Swine Erysipelas 
Swine erysipelas is an infective disease of swine characterized ]>y 



Proliferation 




Proliferation 



Fig. 100. Proliferations on heart valves following swine erysipelas. 

a higli temperature, cerebral disturbances and discoloration of the 
skin. This disease has not been identitied in the United States but it 
has been more or less prevalent in most of the countries of Europe. 
It is essentially a disease of adult swine and rarely affects swine that 
are more than three years of age. 

Etiology. — Swine erysipelas is caused by the B. of swine erysipelas. 
This is a slender rod-shaped bacterium from 1 to 2 microns in length 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 339 

and 2 to 3 microns in diameter. House mice and pigeons may be suc- 
cessfully inoculated with the B. of swine erysipelas. 

Period of incubation. — The period of incubation in natural infec- 
tion is not less than three days. 

Lesions. — Swine erysipelas may assume a septicemic form and a 
less acute form. The septicemic form of the disease is so rapidly 
fatal that there are no distinct characteristic lesions. In these 
cases there is usually parenchymatous degeneration of the essential 
organs. In the less acute cases there is an intense gastro-enteritis 
which may be hemorrhagic or diphtheritic. There is usually tume- 
faction and edema of the lymph glands and there may be nephritis, 
hepatitis and myositis. The spleen is usually engorged with blood. 
The characteristic lesion consists of red purpuric areas on the ears, 
around the anus or vulva and on the inner surface of the thighs. 

Symptoms. — This disease has a sudden onset. The affected animal is 
indifferent, refuses food, retches frequently and may vomit, has a high 
temperature and may evidence disturbances of the cerebral func- 
tions. There is marked weakness and a tendency to inco-ordination of 
the hind legs. The conjunctival mucosa may be injected and the eye- 
lids swollen. There may be grinding of the teeth and diarrhea is usu- 
ally present. 

The characteristic symptom occurs on the skin in various loca- 
tions and consists of red areas three or four inches in diameter. These 
areas later become purple and may fuse, forming large patches. Vesi- 
cles appear in the purple areas, especially in those that occur upon 
the ears or facial region. In some cases the discolored skin areas be- 
come necrotic and slough. The various symptoms vary in intensity, 
and in the very acute, rapidly fatal cases and the mild cases the skin 
lesions may be wanting. 

The course of the disease varies from one to ten days and the 
prognosis is unfavorable. The mortality averages about 60 per cent. 

Treatment.— ^wine that recover from an attack of swine erysipelas 
are immune. An immunizing serum may be successfully used in the 
prevention of this disease, and according to reports the serum is also 
of value as a curative agent. 

Rabies 

Rabies occurs in swine, but is not prevalent. It may occur enzobti- 
cally, but is much more likely to affect only one animal, or few animals 
at most, in any one locality. 



340 SWINE PRACTICE 

Etiology. — Rabies is caused by a virus, but the exact nature of this 
virus has not been determined more than that it is filtrable. Recently 
it has been successfully cultivated. 

Source and manner of uifection. — The usual source of rabies in 
swine is from an infected animal, usually a dog. Rabid dogs meander- 
ing through the country occasionally attack swine, biting and thus 
infecting them. 

Lesions. — Gross lesions are absent in swine that have died of rabies. 
Foreign substances may l)e found in the stomach, but swine have a 
habit of consuming almost anything and therefore foreign bodies in 
the stomach have little significance. Microscopically, Negri bodies are 
found in the cells of the amnion horn, and also in the cells of the cere- 
bellar cortex. These bodies are the same in swine as in other animals. 

Symptoms. — Affected swine usually become excitable and show 
sexual desire, and Ihey uuiy become vicious aiul attack other animals 
or man. They have a depraved appetite, or there maj^ be inappetance. 
These symptoms will become more aggravated for two or three days, 
then the aninml becomes depressed and jiaralysis of various groups 
of muscles appears. The affected animals may be depressed from the 
beginning, show more or less evidence of paralysis, and finally assume 
a comatose state pi'ior to death. 

Diagnosis. — Diagnosis cannot be made positive by clinical examina- 
tion, although if the history shows contact with a rabid animal from 
ten days to four weeks before the symptoms appeared one could diag- 
nose the case as suspected rabies. A positive diagnosis can be made 
only by the finding of Negri bodies by microscopic examination, or 
the reproduction of the disease by inoculation of a laboratory animal 
with a small (juantity of the brain tissue of the animal in question. 

Treatment. — Curative treatment has always been considered futile. 
Recently the use of (piinine has, according to reports, given good re- 
sults in cases of rabies in dogs. Other investigators have failed to 
obtain beneficial results from the use of quinine in experimentally in- 
oculated cases of i-abies. if valuable animals are kuown to have been 
bitten by a rabid dog it may be given the Pasteur treatment and thus 
the development of the disease prevented. 

Foot and Mouth Disease (Aphthae Epizooticae) 

This is an acute, infectious, transmissible disease, primarily affect- 
ing cattle and sheep. It also aft'ects hogs, goats, more rarely horses, 
dogs and other auimals. 

This disease is quite prevaleut in some European countries and 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 341 

it has appeared in tlie United States on six different oeoasions: in 
1870, 1880, 1884, 1902, 1008 and 1914. 

Etiology. — Foot-and-month disease is produced by one of the so- 
called filtrable viruses, which up to the present time has not been suc- 
cessfully cultivated outside of the animal body. The virus exists 
especially in the serous fluids of the vesicles in the mouth, from which 
it gains entrance to the saliva and thus to the soil and food from the 
salivary secretions. The vesicular lesions are also found on the feet 
and thus the virus also gains entrance to soil, bedding and food, from 
which other animals can easily obtain infection. There appears to be 
little doubt but what the virus is eliminated from the body in all excre- 
tions. The exact length of time the virus will retain its vitality 
outside of the animal body has not been determined, but it has been 
observed that infection will persist in buildings that have not been 
disinfected for several months. Some outbreaks of this disease have 
l):^en apparently traced to contaminated hay that had not been in con- 
tact with diseased animals for three months or more. Thus infection 
may be obtained from food, infected premises, hides and in the various 
animal serums. 

In the 1914 outbreak in the United States several centers of infection 
were undoubtedly established through the use of anti-hog cholera 
serum that had been made from infected hogs. This latter source is 
of considerable importance and should entail careful inspection upon 
the part of the government employes to prevent a distribution of the 
disease by this means. 

The usual channel of entrance of infection is through the abrasion 
of the buccal mucous membrane, but in hogs the infection is more fre- 
quently affected through abrasion of the skin in an interdigital space 
or around the superior part of the hoof. Sucli abrasions are no doubt 
of very common occurrence as they can easily be produced by stubs, 
sticks and splinters which are very common in the pens where hogs are 
maintained. Infection can also be introduced upon food stuff, es- 
pecially by milk from affected cows and thus gain entrance to the le- 
sions to abrasions in the mouth, and as before stated infection may be 
introduced in serum. Some authorities are of the opinion that the dis- 
ease may be carried from farm to farm by birds and other carrion 
animals; hence an absolute (luarantine sliould be maiu^-ained on nl' 
infected premises. 



342 SWINE PRACTICE 

Lesions. — Foot-and-mouth disease assumes two forms, benign and 
malignant. As a rule hogs are not as seriously affected with this dis- 
ease as are cattle, a subacute or benign form being most prevalent in 
these animals. The principal manifestation of this disease consists 
of vesicles which develop around the coronary band and in the inter- 
digital spaces. One or more feet may be involved and these vesicles 
vary in size from a grain of wheat to a pea, and are usually of short 
duration. The surface of the epithelium ruptures and later desqua- 
mates, leaving a denuded surface. The surrounded surface becomes 
tumefied and hypersensitive. Similar lesions may also be found on 
the skin of the snout and less frequently upon the buccal mucous mem- 
brane. If the animals are maintained in clean quarters the simple 
uncomplicated lesions will lieal in from ten days to three weeks. If 
the animals are maintained in muddy, filthy pens secondary infections 
frequently arise and the hoof may slougli and the animals die of sep- 
tic infection. Very rarely a general vesiculo-papular eruption may 
occur on large areas of the skin. 

Symptoms. — The most pronounced symptoms of foot-and-mouth dis- 
ease in hogs consist in lameness ; the principal lesions being found on 
the feet. The animals have a disinclination to move and because of 
the soreness tend to assume a decubital position. If the animals are 
forced to move they will probably walk upon their toes. The lesions 
in various stages of progress may be observed at this time by inspec- 
tion. If the disease is of a virulent type there will be systemic 
disturbances consisting of rise of temperature, inappetence, listless- 
ness or dullness. If the buccal mucous membrane is involved, there 
will be more or less salivation and disinclination to eat. 

Course and prognosis. — This disease usually runs its course in from 
one to three weeks, although it may progress for a longer period. 
The disease is ordinarily not fatal if uncomplicated in the hogs, 
although the financial value of the animals is considerably depreciated 
because of the fact that they rapidly emaciate. 

Tfeatment. — Thus far no treatment has been found that will 
curtail the course of the disease. Animals that have had the disease 
possess an immunity for a short time, probably not longer than six 
months or a year. The disease is of such a destructive nature in so 
far as the value of the animals is concerned, that it has always been 
considered advisable to destrov the animals and disinfect the prem- 



]NFECTI(,)US DISEASES 



843 



ises along with the proper disposal of the carcasses to insure destruc- 
tion of all available virus. 

Because of the extent of the 1914 outbreak in the United States, 
it is possible that new centers of the disease may make its appear- 
ance at almost any time and veterinarians should familiarize them- 
selves with this disease. 

TETANUS (lock JAW) 

Tetanus is a specific infective 
disease caused by the B. tetani 
and characterized by spasms of 
muscular tissue. 

Tetanus is not a common dis- 
ease in swine. It has been ob- 
served in suckling pigs and in 
mature swine but these animals 
are not as susceptible to the dis- 
ease as horses. 

Etiology. — Tetanus is a tox- 
emia and the B. tetani produces 
the toxin. The B. tetani usually 
gains entrance through abrasions 
or puncture wounds and this 
disease may be a sequel of cas- 
tration or parturition. 

Sy))i2)toms. — The symptoms manifested consist of stilty gait, opis- 
thotonos, retracted eye and as the disease progresses there will be 
spasms of the masseter muscle resulting in socalled "lock jaw." The 
course of the disease is variable. In some cases the affected animals 
recover and in others death ensues in from two to four days. 

Lesions. — There are no gross lesions that are characteristic of tet- 
anus. Operative or accidental wounds are usually present in the 
carcass of a hog dead of tetanus. 

Treatment. — Prevention of infection is far better than treatment 
of cases of tetanus in swine. The tetanus bacillus is prevalent in the 
soil, especially of barn yards and therefore operative wounds should 
be properly protected. Some practitioners have reported favorable 
results from the use of from 2000 unit to 5000 unit doses of tetanus 
antitoxin, repeated every 12 hours until there is relaxation of the 
muscles. Perhaps lobeline sulphate hypodermically is worthy of a 
trial in this disease. 




Pig. 101 — Bacillus tetani — with spores 
in various stages of development. 



CHAPTER XIII 
SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS 



Castration 

Scrotal hernia 

Spaying 

Removal of mammae 

Removal of swirls 



Puberty 
Estrnm 

Gestation period 
Fecal membranes 
Parturition 
Dystocia 
Cesarean section 

Hysterotomy 

Hysterectomy 

Accidents of pregnancy 



Castration of the Boar 

The castration of animals is an ancient practice. This operation 
in swine is done for economic reasons, the meat of the boar or a stag 
having a disagreeable odor and in some instances is not palatable. The 
castration of swine has in general been done by the hog raiser, but 
the high prices of tliese animals have been a stimulus to have all such 
operations done by a competent veterinarian. Although this opera- 
tion in swine is usually not serious, care should be exercised by the 
surgeon and the operation aseptically and skilfully done, in order that 
good results be obtained ; otherwise, lie will not be employed to do this 
class of work. 

AGE FOR CASTRATION 

The exact age that swine should attain before this operation is per- 
formed will depend upon surrounding conditions. Generally speak- 
ing, swine should be castrated relatively young. It is not advisable to 
castrate pigs during stormy weather, in early spring, winter or fall, 
ink s Ihey can be placed in clean quarters and properly housed. 
Neither should this operation be performed on pigs that are in muddy, 
filthy pens. As in other animals swine should not be castrated if they 
are affected with some disease or have been exposed to infection. It 
is usually advisable to place the pigs in a clean pen, giving them a 



SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS 



345 




Fig. 102. Restraint of a large boar for castration. ( White's Castration.) 




Fig. 103. Restraint for castration. (Wlilte's Castration.) 



346 SWINE PRACTICE 

lialf ration the day before they are to be castrated and withholding 
feed on the day of castration until after the operation. 

INSTRUMENTS 

The instruments selected will vary in accordance with the desire of 
the operator. In selecting instruments those having defects or faulty 
construction should be rejected. Instruments for castration should 
contain materials that will permit of sterilization. The usual instru- 
ments selected consist of a castration knife, one or more compression 
forceps and a basin for antiseptic solution. 

RESTRAINT 

To restrain a pig for castration an assistant should seize it by the 
hind legs and swing its bodv between his knees. The assistant thus 




Fig. 104. Swine and sheep emasculator. (Wlhite's Castration.) 

straddling over the pig's back exposes the scrotum for the operator. 
Larger hogs may be restrained by seizing the hind leg and ears and 
throwing the animal on his side, placing one knee on his neck and by 
flexing the hind leg expose the scrotum. Very large boars may be 
castrated in the standing position, restraint to be affected by means of 
a snare. 

TECHNIC 

The scrotum should be cleaned and washed with some good reliable 
antiseptic. Some operators recommend the use of a moderately stiff 
bristle brush to remove the dust and dirt without the application of 



SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS 



347 



liquids, after which the scrotal skin along the line where the incision 
is to be made is painted with tincture of iodin. A free incision should 
be made through the skin and dartos. The incision should be parallel 
to the raphe and extended low enough to insure good drainage. After 
the testicle has been exposed the cremaster muscle is severed, if it is 




Fig. 1U5. Holding pig for castration. (Wliite's Castration.) 



well developed, and the testicle with the intact vaginal tunic is re- 
moved in young pigs by a sudden jerk. The division of the vessels in 
the spermatic cord by traction tends to prevent subsequent hemor- 
rhage. In old boai s it is advisable to use either an ecraseur or emas- 



348 SWINE PRACTICE 

culator to divide the spermatic cord as their use lessens the danger of 
hemorrhage. 

CARE AFTER CASTRATION 

AVhen the operation of castration has been completed the wounds 
should be painted with tincture of iodiu and the animals placed in 
clean quarters. A grass pasture in which there are no mud holes is 
desirable for recently castrated swine as they are less likely to become 
infected and are required to exercise. Old boars may evidence colic 
pains and distress as a result of castration or there may be severe hem- 
orrhage. If such animals are permitted to remain quiet and undis- 
turbed they -will usually not require further attention. 

CASTRATION OP PIGS WITH MISPLACED TESTICLES 

The occurrence of misplaced testicles and cryptorchidism is rela- 
tively common in pigs. After such pigs are properly restrained a 
careful examination should be made to determine the location of the 
testicle. In addition to the usual instruments used in castration, 
suturing materials should be provided, and if the patient is an aged 
boar it is advisable to use an ecraseur or emasculator in crushing the 
cord. 

Subcutaneously placed testicles in the groin may be removed through 
an incision of sufficient length made high up in the flank or by an in- 
cision parallel to the median line and as near the groin as possible. 
The operative area should be clipped, cleaned and painted with iodin. 
After the testicle is removed the incision is closed by a continuous 
suture and covered with pine tar. 

In cryptorchids tlie operative field is prepared as above indicated 
and the incision made in the flank and extended through the perito- 
neum, after which the testicle is removed by scraping the cord or by 
the use of an ecraseur. The peritoneum and abdominal muscles are 
sutured with catgut and the skin with either heavy silk or linen and 
pine tar applied to the operative wound. 

The after-treatment consists in placing tlie patients in clean quar- 
ters and supplying them with a diminshed ration of palatable food. 

SEC^lIELAE OF CASTRATION 

Hemorrhage 

Old boars are prone to bleed freely after eastration luiless the op- 
erator has used an ecraseur emasculator to crush the spermatic cord. 
Violent exercise immediatelv after eastration of mature boars 



SrKGEKY AND OBSTETRICS o4f) 

should be prevented. Small pigs rarely bleed suffieieiitly after eas- 
tratioii to cause any eoneern. In case of severe hemorrhage as a se- 
quel of castration it is necessary to restrain the animal and ligate the 
end of the cord or pack the scrotum and close the operative wounds 

l)y sutures. Packing in such cases should be removed in twenty-four 
hours. 

Scirrhous Cord 

Scirrhous cord has been relatively common in swine because of the 
failure to properly care for recently castrated swine and because of 
carelessness in castration. 

This condition is manifested by an enlargement or tumefaction in 
the castration wound. The tumefactions vary in size and appear- 
ance. In some instances there are fistulous tracts and there may be a 
discharge. 

Etiology. — The castration wounds are subject to a variety of infec- 
tion because of their location and the nature and habit of swine. 
Various pyogenic bacteria gain entrance into the castration wound, 
and should the incisions be small and the wound margins closed by 
the inflammatory swelling- an abscess may develop, the size of which 
will depend upon the tissue resistance. Scrotal abscesses in castra- 
tion wounds are not serious if properly opened, drained, and cared 
for, but if the pus is allowed to accumulate it may infiltrate the sur- 
rounding tissues or, more probably, pass along the vas deferens, and 
ultimately enter the pelvic cavity and establish peritonitis. 

The colon bacillus may also infect castration wounds and produce 
either suppurative or septic inflammation. In a few instances several 
pigs have been observed affected with septic disturbances resulting 
from colon infection in castration wounds. The lesions observed in 
septic infection consist of gaseous tumefactions containing inflamma- 
tory products. These cases usually terminate fatally, unless treatment 
is begun early. The treatment consists of opening the castration 
wounds, removing the necrotic tissue with a curette, and freely apply- 
ing efficient germicidal agents. 

The Bacillus necrophorus occasionally gains entrance to the castra- 
tion wounds, but the successful infection by these germs is usually in 
the later stages of the healing process. The Bacillus necrophorus is 
anaerobic and probably is continuously eliminated in the feces. The 
lesions produced by this organism consist of a slow-going necrosis, the 
necrotic foci being surrounded by an inflammatory zone. A peculiar, 
otfensive odor emanates from the lesions. The necrotic areas may 



^^50 SWINE PRACTICE 

later show evidence of separation from the surrunnding tissue, and ul- 
timately the lesion may become desiccated and slough, leaving' a 
dark-colored surface upon which tissue fragments and pus may accu- 
mulate. These cases may prove fatal, but more frequently the ani- 
mals linger for some time, the surrounding tissue becoming tumefied 
due to the proliferation of fibrous tissue. In such cases there is a 
variable sized opening or unhealed surface. If the large fibrous mass 
is removed and incisetl it will l)e found to contain necrotic centers 
composed of fluid, semi-fluid, or caseous material. These centers are 
surrounded by fibrous tissue, the entire mass being made up of layer 
upon layer of fibrous lamella'. The end of the vas deferens will be 
found involved in the mass, to which it usually adheres firmly, or to 
the external surface of the wound, l)y dense fibrous tissue. Tliis con- 
dition in the beginning may be identified by the tumefaction and 
particularly by the bad odor of the discharge. Later the large lesion 
is observed with the characteristic putrid discharge from the open 
wound. 

Treatment. — In the early stages the condition may be relieved by 
the energetic application of disinfectants, and if necrosis is present 
the excision or curettment of the necrotic centers. After the dense 
mass of fibrous tissue has formed, only the careful removal of the 
entire mass by operation is successful ; and in this the greatet care 
must be exercised or the animal will bleed to death. 

It is advisable to administer an anesthetic or perliai)s preferably 
administer chloral hydrate per rectum to these cases before operat- 
ing-. In the early stages this condition may be corre^^ted by care- 
fully removing the diseased tissues. Proper after-care should be 
provided to prevent infection and recurrence of the condition. If tlie 
tumefaction is extensive and contains areas of necrotic tissue the 
entire mass should be carefully dissected away from the normal tis- 
sues. Hemorrhages should be controlled in these operations or the 
patient may die of shock or exhaustion. Such masses may be removed 
by an emasculator and thus diminish hemorrhage. The wound should 
be swabbed with iodin and packed with gauze. The packing should 
be removed in eighteen to twenty-four hours. 

Actinoniycosis 

Actinomycosis may affect the scrotum of castrated swine, but is 
not common. 



SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS 



351 



Parasites 

Infestation of the castration wounds with screw-worms (larVcC 
of the Campsomyia macellaria) are very common in the southern 
part of the United States. These larvffi burrow into the tissues, 
thus mechanically injuring them and providing an avenue of en 
trance for various bacteria. 

Lesions. — The principal lesion consists of an active, acute in- 
tiammation witli or without the production of pus. The surrounding 
tissues are tumefied, hyperemic, hemorrhagic, and contain the larvte. 
The extensive tumefaction developing within one or two days after 
castration is the most evident symptom. On a close inspection, larvoe 




Fig. 106. ACTINOMYCOSIS. 



may be observed near or upon the surface, and by manipulation 
of the lesion larva? may be forced out upon the surface. In cases 
of screw-worm infestation there is a constant sero-sanguineous dis- 
cliarge that by attracting the female fly favors repeated reinfestation. 
Treatment. — All that can be done in cases of screw-worm in- 
festation is to support the strength and minister to the comfort 
of the animal and prevent a further infestation from the deposition 
of more eggs or larva? upon the wound and patiently wait for the 
investing larv.v to reach the stage of development when they volun- 



352 SWINE PRACTICE 

tarily leave the wound to pupate iu the yrouud. This occurs in 
three to five days. 

The application of chloroform, naphthalene or other chemicals 
to the wound is worse than useless. Such measures not only fail 
to effect the removal of more than a small percentage of the larv^, 
hut they also irritate the highly sensitive tissues and greatly ag- 
gravate the condition. 

None of the ordinary fly-repellents has any deterrent effect upon 
the female of the screws-worm fly in the presence of fresh l)lood, 
either in recent wounds or in the discharge from screw-worm in- 
fested wounds. However, a mixture composed of turpentine one 
dram, phenol one dram and cottonseed oil four ounces is an eflPective 
repellent for this fly, and where there is a probability of screw- 
worm infestation it shoukl be apjilied to frcsli wounds and to in- 
fested wounds as long as the screw-worm larvtv are present and the 
sanguineous discharge contiiuu^s. 0))e application daily is suffi- 
cient. 

Botryomycosis 

The Botryomyces ascoformans also infects castration wounds in 
swine. This condition is very common in certain localities at some 
seasons. It is of a chronic, insidious nature. The castration wounds 
may heal and be apparently normal, the first indication of the condi- 
tion being a slight enlargement of the scrotum. The enlargement 
persists and gradually increases in size until it is quite large ; in some 
instances these masses may attain the size of a football. On exam- 
ination of the affected pig a rather dense mass can l)e outlined, appar- 
ently adhered to the substructures but not attached to the skin unless 
the wound lias failed to heal. These masses are found to be encaji- 
sulated with dense fibrous connective tissues. On sectioning the 
growth, many centers are found from one-half to two inches in diam- 
eter. These centers contain pus which may be caseous, and the vari- 
ous centers communicate by means of fistulous tracts. 

Treatment consists of ablation of the entire mass, which is ordinari- 
ly not difficult as the lesion is subcutaneous and is definitely circum- 
scribed. '' , ! : *': 

Scrotal Hernia 

■ Scrotal liernia is relatively frequent in swine. The condition oc- 
curs at the time or soon after birth and is said to be congenital in 



SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS 



353 



about 90 per cent of the cases. It is occasionally observed in sliotes or 
older swine, and is in such cases prol)ably the result of injury. This 
condition consists of a protrusion of omentum or a portion of intes- 
tine into the scrotum between the protruded intestine will be found 
outside the tunica vaginalis reflexa. Scrotal hernia may be limited 
or extensive ; in some instances the scrotum may be as large as a gal- 
lon jug. Raising the hind parts of the pig usually permits of a por- 
tion of the protruded structure passing back into the abdomen, and 
thus reduces the hernia. 

Tredtiiienf. — This condition can be permanently relieved only by 
surgical procedure. It is preferable to operate on pigs under two 
months of age. Feed should be withheld from animals that are to 




Fig. 107. Scirrhous cord dne to botryomycotic infection. 



be operated upon for from twelve to twenty-four liours. A solution 
of chloral hydrate should be injected per rectum twenty to thirty 
minutes before operating. Small pigs may be restrained by hang- 
ing them up by cords attached to the hind legs. Larger hogs will not 
submit readily to this mode of restraint but may be conveniently man- 
aged on a slight incline that can be readily provided for the purpose. 
Small animal operating tables are available for such operations and 
Mill be found very convenient. 

The scrotum should be carefully examined to determine the nature 
and extent of the lieriiia. Tlie ojierative area should be thoroughly 



354 



SWINE PRACTICE 



cleaned and antiseptics applied, after which an incision is made paral- 
lel with the median line or raphe and extended sufficiently low to 
insure good drainage. This incision should extend through the skin 
and dartos. If the amount of protruding intestine is limited in amount 
and is contained within the vaginal tunic the covered operation for 
castration will relieve the condition. The vaginal tunic with the 
contained testicle should be exposed by blunt dissection and the cord 
with its enveloping tissues clamped by compression forceps, using 



^ 




Kt^j^ 



Fig. 108. Multiple abscesses in Duroc boar. 

care not to include any portion of the intestine, and then a ligature 
of heavy silk is passed through and around the cord and ligated. The 
cord is then severed about one inch distally from the ligature. It is 
also advisable to close the inguinal canal by catgut sutures. The 
scrotal incision should be closed with the exception of the lower por- 
tion by continuous sutures of silk or linen. 

In cases in which the protruded intestine is large the operation is 
more serious. The animal should be prepared by withholding food 



Sr'RGERY AND OBSTETRICS 



355 



for eighteen to twenty-four hours. They should be given a rectal in- 
jection of chloral hydrate to diminish sensibility and be restrained in 
an inclined position with the head downward. The field of operation 
should be cleansed and painted with tincture of iodin. An incision is 
made over the inner abdominal ring three to four inches in length and 
parallel to the vaginal tunic, which is exposed by careful dissection. 




Fig. 109. Restraint for spaying sow belly method. (White's Castration.) 



The hernia can usually be easily reduced if it has not already become 
so due to the animal's position. The cord should be ligated and sev- 
ered, thus removing the testicle, after wiiich the cord is passed into 
the peritoneal cavity and a catgut purse-string suture applied to the 
inner abdominal ring. The external incision is closed by continuous 
sutures. 



S56 



SWINE PRACTICE 



Spaying of Sows 

Unsexiiig of sows is not commonly practiced in this section of the 
country. Experiments have proved that spayed sows were more 
economic than entire females in the production of meat. The char- 
acter of the meat is apparently not changed by spaying. 

Spaying should be done on sows from two to four months of age. 
Feed should be withheld from twelve to twenty-four hours before op- 
erating. The patient should be restrained on an inclined table or 
by some other means so that the head is considerably lower than the 
hind quarters. They should be confined so that either flank is ex- 




Fig. 110. Internal genital organs of sow (diagrammatic). A, rectum: 
B, vagina; C, bladder; D. uterus; E. left uterine horn; F. right fallopian 
tube and horn; G, ovary; H. intestines; I, kidney. 



posed. After clipping the hair in the flank region, anterior to the 
angle of the ilium, the part should be cleansed and tincture of iodin 
applied. An incision is made through the skin, fascia and abdominal 
muscles, after which the peritoneum is punctured. The length of the 
incision should be determined by the size of the sow. Two fingers or 
the entire hand is inserted into the peritoneal cavitj' to locate the 
ovaries, w^hich will be found suspended on a relatively long broad 
ligament which will permit of the ovaries being brought to the sur- 
face where they can be removed by means of serrated scissors. 

It is not considered necessary to suture the peritoneum. The skin 



SrRdERY .\X1> OBSTETRICS 



:5o( 



and abdominal niusc-les should be united by three or four interrupted 
sutures. The wound should then be painted with tincture of iodiu 

and with a tiy repellent, and the sows placed in clean (piarters. 

Ablation of the Mammary Glands 

Removal of the mammas of swine is advisable when they are in- 
vaded with tumors, extensively lacerated or affected with actinomyco- 
sis, botryomyccsis. necrobacillosis and some other infections. 

Operation is indicated when the injury or disease process can not 
b€ relieved by therapeutic agents. 

The animal should be properly restrained and narcotized by chloral 
hydrate injected per rectum. The operative field should be cleaned 
and painted with tincture of iodin. An incision should be made par- 
allel to the median line over the central portion of the affected gland 
unless the skin is involved, when the incision should be so made as not 
to pass through the diseased portion. After the incision has been 
made and hemorrhage controlled the skin should be separated from 




Fig. 111. TUMOR OF THE MAMJIARY GLAND. 

the gland and the gland from the underlying structures by blunt dis- 
section. The larger blood-vessels should be ligated and the gland re- 
moved after hemorrhage is controlled and fragments of tissue re- 



358 SWINE PRACTICE 

moved. A senii-elliptical portion of the skin should be removed from 
either side of the original incision so that the margin can be approxi- 
mated by sutnres. If the involved gland be extensivelj^ swollen it 
may be advisable to pack the wonnd ; otherwise, it should be painted 
with tincture of iodin and drainage provided for and the wound 
closed by continuous sutures. A protecting coating of collodion or 
other substance will be found of value in preventing infection. The 
animal should be placed in clean quarters and provided witli whole- 
some food and water. 

Operation to Remove Swirls 

A swirl is an irregular whorl of hair or bristles that usually oc- 
curs on the back, loin or croup of swine. Some pure-bred associations 
disqualify swine that have swirls. If swine with swirls are otherwise 
eligible for registry and are good individuals this disqualifying fac- 
tor may be removed. 

Such cases should be operated upon before maturity to avoid the 
development of scar tissue. The patient should be restrained in a 
crate or upon an improvised table^ The swirl and the surrounding 
area should be cleaned and painted with tincture of iodin. By the 
use of a sharp scalpel an elliptical incision is made through the skin 
around the swirl. The long diameter of the ellipse being parallel with 
the median line of the body. The incision should be made obliquely 
through the skin in such a manner that the margins of the ellipse are 
of the same obliquity and can be overlapped without causing a ridge. 
The oblique margins are then approximated by interrupted sutures 
and supported by sutures well back of the incisions. The operative 
wound is painted with tincture of iodin and covered by a protecting 
layer of collodion and the animal placed in clean quarters where the 
possibility of infection will be reduced to a minimum. 

OBSTETRICS 

The characteristics of the breeds of swine are being constantly 
changed and the type of any pure-bred hog is materially different 
from the original wild hog. The changes incidental to the building 
of breed types have been, in some instances, at the expense of char- 
acteristics that insured the preservation of the species. The original 
wild hog and, in fact, the razor back type of today, have little if any 



Sl'ROERY AND OBSTETRICS 359 

difficulty in farrowing. The characteristics, particularly of the lard 
type of hog, are sneh that the space for a gravid uterus is encroached 
upon and the channel through which the pig must be expelled during 
farrowing is proportionally smaller than in the original hog. These 
conditions are responsible for the difficulties of farrowing that are 
so commonly encountered by the general practitioner. The practi- 
tioners in hog-raising sections are finding that swine ol)stetrics re- 
quires patience, care and skill if favorable results are obtained. 

AGE OF PUBERTY AND ESTRU:M 

The appearance of puberty takes place at slightly different periods 
in different breeds. Puberty is indicated by the appearance of es- 
trum or heat. During this time the mucous membrane of the vulva 
and vagina becomes congested and there is a gelatinous discharge 
from the vulva. Sows in the period of estruni are restless and con- 
stantly moving about, apparently seeking the opposite sex. The 
estrual period usually persists for from twelve to forty-eight hours. 

The period of heat sometimes fails to occur in gilts and in sows 
that have aborted. The cause of this condition in gilts may be due to 
inbreeding, excessive fat, lack of sufficient exercise or diseases of the 
genital organs. If the defect be due to overfeeding or lack of exer- 
cise it can usually be overcome by diminishing the feed and making 
the conditions such that abundant exercise will be taken. It is diffi- 
cult to overcome this condition when it is caused bj^ inbreeding or dis- 
eases of the genital organs. It is advisable to administer such agents 
as yohimbin and strychnin in some form in the feed to those cases 
in which the individual is a good l)reeding type. Yohimbin may be 
obtained in the form of an elixir or in tablet form. Tlie dose of the 
elixir is from one to two drams twice daily ; each tablet as usually 
prepared contains a single dose and one tablet should be given three 
times daily. The strychnin may be given in the form of the elixir of 
iron, quinin and strychnin, using one to two drams twice daily in 
slop or as nux vomica, using one to two drams twice daily, in the 
slop. 

The failure of the occurrence of estrum due to previous abortion 
may be corrected by overcoming the diseased condition of the vagina 
and uterus, which is described in detail under the topic of retained 
placenta. 



360 SWINE PRACTICE 

GESTATION PERIOD 

The gestation period in tlie sow varies from 110 to 120 days. The 
first gestation period is usually about 112 days, and aged sows may 
not farrow until the ]20tli day after conception. 

ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS 

The ovaries are irregularly lobulated, due to the prominence of 
the graafian vesicles. The uterus is supported by a large broad liga- 
ment. The uterine horns are long and are the portion of the uterus 
that contains the fetal pigs. The blood-vessels of the uterus, through 
which the fetuses are supplied with nutrition, are irregularly ar- 
ranged in tufts, particularly in the horns. The body of the uterus 
is short and completes the communication between the uterine horns 
and the vaginal canal. The vulva is relatively small and contains the 
duets or canals of Gartner. 

The mammary glands, ten or twelve in number, are arranged seri- 
ally on either side of the median line. Each gland has a separate teat 
which is pierced by openings. 

The fetal membranes are those structures between the fetus and the 
uterine mucosa. They are three in number and from without inward 
are : the chorion, aliantois and amnion. Eac-h fetus is completely en- 
veloped with separate membranes during the first part of the period 
of gestation, althuugli tlie ciiorion and parietal portion of tlie alia i- 
tois of each fetus overlap the same membranes of the adjacent fetus. 
In the later period of gestation there is apparently a fusion of the 
chorion and its attached jiarietal aliantois membrane with the cor- 
responding membranes of tlie adjacent fetuses and at the same time 
there is a solution of the membrane in most cases within the fused 
areas excepting the margin, and the aliantois space thus becomes con- 
tinuous and is common to all of the fetuses within the gravid uteras. 

The chorion is the most external, is a closed sac, and assumes the 
shape and contour of the horns of the uterus. This membrane is prin- 
cipally concerned in the supply of nutrition to the fetus. 

The amnion, also a closed sac, is the innermost membrane and com- 
pletely envelops the fetus. This membrane secretes and retains a 
fluid, the amniotic fluid, which gradually increases in amount and 
just prior to parturition is of sufficient volume that the fetus literally 

*The umbilical cord is the means of coinmunication between the fetus and uterus. 
It is composed of embryonal connective tissue, which supports the urachus, arteries and 
veins. 



.SIJKGEKY AND OBSTETRICS 361 

floats ill it. This fluid diminishes shock or injury to the fetus in 
utero and also serves as a lubricant in the vaginal canal in parturi- 
tion. The allantois is a doubh^ membrane, one portion being applied 
to the internal aspect of the chorion and the other to the external 
aspect of the amnion. The two membranes form a constrictor tube, 
the urachus, which extends into the abdomen of the fetus through the 
umbilical opening and thence to the anterior portion of the bladder 
with which a communication is provided. Thus, the allantoic space 
serves as a urinary reservoir. 

The umbilical cord is the means of communication between the fetus 
and uterus. It is composed of embryonal connective tissue, which 
supports tiie urachus, arteries and veins. 

Parturition 

The symptoms of i)arturition consist of congestion and tumefac- 
tion of the mucous membrane of the vulva and enlargement of the 
mamma'. The primary symptom of parturition is restlessness, and 
the sow will usually make a bed before she assumes the lying posture. 

The expulsion of the fetuses from the uterus is the result of the 
combined muscular activity of the uterus and abdominal muscles, 
•hist prior to the time that the muscular contractions begin, in normal 
animals, the cervix of the uterus relaxes and several fetuses will be 
delivered in a relatively short time. If expulsion is delayed while the 
fetus is in the vaginal canal the pig may be dead because of the 
strangulation of the blood supply through the umbilical cord and the 
cessation of respiration while the pig is in the canal. Such pigs may 
be revived by cleaning the mouth and nostrils and by the institution 
of artificial respiration which it may be necessary to continue sev- 
eral minutes. 

DIFFICULT PARTURITION DYSTOCIA 

Difficult parturition may be due to a variety of conditions, some 
of which are known and may be overcome. Some of the conditions 
that cause or are associated with dystocia are: the breeding of gilts 
that are too young ; the mating of young gilts with old boars ; the mat- 
ing of small frame sows with large coarse boars ; allowing the sow to 
become too fat; requiring insufficient exercise of pregnant sows; con- 
stipation and impaction. In addition to the foregoing, dystocia is oc- 
casionally the result of malformation of the pelvis or abnormality of 
the musculature and cervix of the uterus. 



362 SWINE PRACTICE 

One difficulty with dealing with dystocia in sows has been the fail- 
ure of the farmer to call the veterinarian promptly. In those eases 
that have been in labor for twelve to twenty-four hours the services 
of the practitioner will probably not be of much value, because of the 
swollen condition of the genitals, due to infection. 

In those cases in which the genitals have not been injured or are 
not infected, good results have been obtained by the use of pituitrin 
extract. This product can be obtained in one-mil ampoules which 
comprises a dose and should be injected intramuscularly. This dose 
can be repeated in twenty to thirty minutes. Pituitrin has also been 
reported to give good results in some of the dystocia cases. This is 
a compound in which tiie active principle is ergotin, quinin and urcA 
hydrochlorid. The pituitrin is supplied in one-mil ampoules which 
constitutes a dose, or it may be obtained in larger containers. This 
product should be injected into the muscle and the dose can be re- 
peated every twenty or thirty minutes. It will be found advan- 
tageous to dilate the genitals with warm water or an effusion of slip 
pery elm bark. 

It is difficult to assist in difficult parturition in the sow because 
of the smallness of the vaginal canal. Some practitioners employ a 
small boy with long fingers and a slender hand as an assistant in 
these cases. Instrumentation in dystocia of sows has not been very 
successful with the majority of general practitioners. The style of in- 
^trument selected varies with different operators, but Day's pig for- 
ceps or Colson's improved pig forceps are probably as well adapted 
as any that are on the market. In fact, some practitioners use a loop 
of wire passed through a small pipe and obtain good results. 

The sow should be placed in as clean quarters as can be provided, 
and the external genitals washed with warm antiseptic solution prior 
to the application of lubricants or the use of forceps. After the field 
and operator's hands have been properly prepared, one or more fin- 
gers may be inserted into the vaginal canal for the purpose of direct- 
ing the forceps in a fishing game of chance which is sometime:? 
successful. 

CESAREAN SECTION 

This operation is frequently successfully performed on sows if the 
operation is done promptly in dystocia cases. Good results will prob- 
ably not be obtained if the patient has been in labor for more than 
eighteen hours, and the operation will be more successful if performed 



SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS 368 

within the first six hours of labor. An unfavorable prognosis should 
be given if the temperature is 105" F. or above. 

Anesthesia 

The administration of chloroform or the various chloroform mix- 
tures is not satisfactory, as swine are especially susceptible to chloro- 
form poisoning. Chloral hydrate injected per rectum usually pro- 
duces sufficient stupor so that this operation can be successfully per- 
formed. From one to four drams of chloral hydrate dissolved in 
water is the usual dose required for swine. It usually requires about 
twenty minutes for cliloral to i)roduce its action. Some practitioners 
do not use any anesthetic in performing this operation, but it is 
probable that l)etter results will be obtained where anesthetics are em- 
ployed. 

Restraint 

The patient should be placed on either the right or left side in a 
horizontal position and proi)erly secured. The front legs may be se- 
cured to a post and the hind legs held by an attendant. 

Instruments 

Curved needles, two or three threaded with silk and the same num- 
ber threaded with catgut, a scalpel, a long forceps, several smaller 
compression forceps, one or two pairs of scissors, clean towels, sterile 
gauze, absorbent cotton and a vessel for antiseptic solution is usually 
sufficient equipment for this operation. 

Technic 

The urine shoidd be drawn, the area iu the Hank just posterior to 
the last rib is shaved or clipped, cleansed and painted w^ith iodin. 
An incision through the entire abdominal structures is made about 
midway between the external iliac spine and the last rib, the direction 
of the incision being obliquely downward and forward and about 
four inches in length. Hemorrhage should be controlled. The skin 
surface adjacent to the incision should be covered with tow^els or 
clean cloths before introducing the hand. The location of the fetuses 
should be determined by manipulation. By gentle traction the gravid 
horn should be brought to the surface and the condition of the uterus 
determined. If both horns are gravid it is advisable to make a care- 



364 SWINE PRACTICE 

fill examination of eacli of tliem before proceeding with the opera- 
tion. 

HYSTEROTOMY 

If live fetuses are found in the gravid uterus and there are no indi- 
cations of injury or infection it is advisable to perform hysterotomy. 
If both horns are gravid, the one on the side in which the abdominal 
opening has been made should be brought onto the surface that has 
previously been protected with clean cloths. An incision about six 
inches in length is made longitudinally on the dorsum over the fetus 
nearest the uterus. The gravid horn must be maintained in such a 
position that none of the tiuids or contents of the uterus will contami- 
nate the incisions of tlie operative wound or the peritoneum. All 
fetuses in the same horn can by manipulation be removed from the 
one opening. All fragments of placental membranes must be re- 
moved. It is sometimes possible by carefid manipulation to remove 
the fetuses from the opposite horn tlirough the one opening, but if 
such is found impossible the operation should lie repeated on the op- 
posite horn. Before suturing the uterine incision all fluids or frag- 
ments cf iVacenta must be removed. The incision should be closed 
with Leml)ert sutures, using catgut. The operative wound should be 
I)ainted with tincture of iodin and the peritoneum sutured with cat- 
gut. The skin should be sutured with heavy silk or linen and the 
surface coated with collodion or pine tar. 

If live pigs are delivered they should not be permitted to suckle 
for several hours. 

Hysterotomy patients should be placed in clean, comfortable quar- 
ters and fed sparingly. 

HYSTERECTOMY 

If on examination of the gravid uterus the fetuses are found to be 
putrid in one or both horns and there is danger of septic infection, 
it is advisable to perform hysterectomy. The same general plan of 
procedure that has been described for hysterotomy should be fol- 
lowed. Special precaution should be taken to prevent leaking of any 
of the content of the gravid horn into the body cavity. After the 
gravid horn has been brought to the surface two pairs of strong for- 
ceps are clamped about one inch apart upon the broad ligament ad- 
jacent to the ovar}'. The tissues between the forceps are severed by 
means of scissors and the remaining attachments of the broad liga- 



SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS 865 

ment can be easily broken down bj' blunt disseetion and the entire 
horn freed. Two heavy compression forceps are clamped upon the 
uterus about one inch apart after all fluids have been forced out by 
manipulation. The uterine body is then severed and the broad liga- 
ment on the opposite horn is bluntly separated up to the region of the 
ovary where two compression forceps are clamped and the tissue sev- 
ered between them, thus releasing all attachments of both horns and 
a portion of the body of the uterus. The severed structures in the re- 
gion of the ovaries are ligated with catgut and the stump end of the 
uterus, after being swabbed with tincture of iodin, is securely sutured 
with catgut. Some o]ierators prefer to fix the sutures by means of 
needles or otherwise. 

The abdominal wound is sutured as previously described in hyster- 
otomy. Hysterectomy is a mucli more serious operation than hyster- 
otomy, and the percentage of recoveries will vary according to t!u:> 
extent of sei)tic infection or intoxication that exists at the time of op- 
eration. 

Such patients should be given the best care possil)le and fed lightly 
on slop feeds. 

ACCIDENTS OF PREGNANCY 

Some interesting conditions have been observed in the uterus of 
sows. If several hundred uteri are examined where it is convenient, 
as on tlie killing beds of an abattoir, some unusual conditions will be 
noted. Cases of mummification of one or more fetuses within the 
uterus are relatively common. It appears as though the sow is not 
as susceptible to putrefactive changes in the uterus as most other 
animals. 

Prolapses of the vagina and uterus and uterine hernia or rupture 
are not as common in swine as they are in horses and cattle. ]\[ost 
cases of prolapse of the vagina and uterus terminate fatally before 
the practitioner arrives, because of the severe hemorrhage. 



INDEX 



Vberration of the A})pc':ite 89 

Vbortion, Cause of 209 

\bortion, Definition of 209 

Vliortion disease 18 

Vhortion, Dissemination 210 

\I)ortion, Prevalence of 209 

Vhortion, Susceptihility to 209 

Vhortion, Symptoms of 210 

Vhortion, Treatment of 211 

Vhortion, Types of 209 

Accidents of pregnancy 3(J5 

Actinomycosis 207, 245 

Actinomycosis following castration 350 

iVlbuminuria 187 

Amaloid changes in liver 130 

Anatomy of female genital organs 360 

Anemia 260 

Anemia of the stomach 92 

Anesthesia 61, 363 

Anesthetics, Administration of 61 

Aneurism 260 

Anthrax .....328 

Anus, Prolapse of 125 

V])hthae epizootic 81 

.\])litliae epizooticae .341 

Appetite, Aherration of 89 

Arthritis, Pyemic 214 

Articular rheumatism 230 

Ascaridiasis 138 

Ascaridiasis, Pulmonary 222 

Ascaris suum 117, 145 

Ascites 142 

Atelectasis 158 

.\tresia ani 214 

.Vttitude significant in diagnosis 46 

Autopsy, Equipment for 53 

Autopsy, Method of holding 52 

Autopsy, Permission necessary 52 

Autopsy records 54 

Autopsy, Subject for 53 

Autopsy, Technic of 55 

Bacillus anthracis 328 

Bacillus of Koch 330 

Bacillus pyogenes 206 

Bacillus suipestifer 274, 325 

Bacillus suisepticus 302 

Bacon hogs 28 

Belladonna poisoning 113 

Berkshire 26 

Bladder, Calculi in the 193 

Bladder, Dilatation of the 192 



Bladder, Hemorrhage into the 192 

Bladder, Inflammation of 194 

Bladder, Malformations of 191 

Bladder, Tumors of the 195 

Bleeding from the nose 148 

Blood in the urine 188 

Boar, Care of herd 14 

Boar, Genital organs of 174 

Boar, Selection of herd 13 

Botryomyces ascoformans 352 

Botryomycosis 207, 352 

Brain, Hyperemia of 268 

Brain, Malformations of 263 

Brain, Parasites of the 269 

Breed, Choice of 12 

Bronchi, Anatomy of 147 

Bronchial stenosis 154 

Bronchial strongylosis 156 

Bronchial tubes, Malformations of 153 

Bronchitis, Catarrhal 154 

Brood sow. The 15 

Buccal membranes, Injuries of 79 

Bulbo-urethral glands 196 

Bull-nose 223 

Calculi in the bladder 193 

Calculi in the prepuce 199 

Calculi, Renal 180 

Campsomyia macellaria 198, 247, 351 

Carbohydrate concentrates. Fat and.... 35 

Carbolic acid poisoning Ill 

Cars, Overloading 21 

Castration 344 

Castration, Age for 344 

Castration, Care after 348 

Castration, Parasites following 351 

Castration, Sequelae of 348 

Castration, Technic of 346 

Caustic potash poisoning 110 

Caustic soda poisoning 110 

Cerebral hyperemia 268 

Cesarean section 362 

Charbon 328 

Cheilitis 75 

Cheilitis, Catarrhal 75 

Cheilitis, Necrotic 76 

Cheilitis, Suppurative 76 

Cheilitis, Vesicular 76 

Chester White 26 

Chloral hydrate 62 

Cholelithiasis 130 

Cholera, Annual loss from 270 



3GS 



INDEX 



Cholera, Diagnosis of 28(j 

Ciiolera, Entrance of infection 280 

Cholera, Etiology 272 

Cholera, Geographical distribution 270 

Cholera, Hog 270 

Cholera lesions , 281 

Cholera, Mode of infection 280 

Cholera, Period of incubation 280 

Cholera, Predisposing causes of 275 

Cholera, Preventive treatment 292 

Cholera, Prognosis in 288 

Cholera, Rules and regulations 290 

Cholera serum, Clarified anti-iiog 295 

Cholera serum production, anti-hog ...293 

Cholera, Source of infection 27() 

Cholera, Susceptibility to 280 

Cholera, Symptoms of 284 

Cholera, Treatment of 289 

Cholera virus. Persistence of 274 

Chorea 268 

Cirrhosis 135 

Clear serum 295 

Cloudy swelling of liver 129 

Coccidiosis ..., 137 

Cocklebur poisoning 112 

Concentrates, Fat and carbohydrate . 35 

Concentrates, protein 35 

Constipation 124 

Corrosive sublimate poisoning Ill 

Cotton-seed meal poisoning UK 

Cough 49 

Cowper's glands 196 

Cross-breeding 12 

Cryptogamic poisoning 115 

Cryptorchidism 14 

Cystic calculi 193 

Cysticercosis 141, 237 

Cysticercus cellulosae 259, 269 

Cysticercus tenuicollis 144 

Cystitis 194 

Cystitis, Catarrhal .....194 

Cystitis, Purulent 194 

Cysts of the ovary 200 

Demodetic mange 252 

Demodex folliculornm 252 

Dentition eclampsia 266 

Dermatitis granulosa 245 

Dermatitis, Necrotic 322 

Diagnosis, Differential 45 

Diagnosis, General 44 

Diaphragm, Spasms of 171 

Diarrhea 123 



Difficult parturition 36I 

Digestion 74 

Digestive disturl)ances 50 

Dilatation of bladder . 192 

Dilatation of esophagus 87 

Dilatation of heart 258 

Dilatation of intestine 104 

Dilatation of stomach 98 

Distoma Americanum 140 

Distoma hepaticum .'.139 

Distoma lanceolatum 140 

Distomatosis 139 

Distomiasis, Pulmonary igs 

Drainage essential 43 

Dropsy, Abdominal 142 

Dropsy of the thorax 168 

Dysentery 123 

Dystocia 3(ji 

Echinococcosis 140 

Echinococcosis of the heart 258 

Echinococcosis pulmonum 168 

Eclampsia 266 

Eczema 47, 244 

Edema, Malignant 325 

Edema, Pulmonary 159 

Elephantiasis 246 

Eniesis 91 

?hn])hysenia of the intestine 105 

Emphysema, Pulmonary 158 

Endocarditis 260 

Enteritis, Acute catarrhal 105 

Enteritis, Chronic catarrhal 107 

Enteritis, Croupous 108 

Enteritis, Infectious necrotic 108, 308 

Enteritis, Necrotic 320 

Enteritis, Toxic 109 

?2nterorrhagia j 101 

Epididymitis 197 

Epilepsy 265 

Epistaxis 148 

Epizootic a))hthae HI 

Erysipelas, Swine 338 

Erythema 241 

Esophagitis 88 

Esophagostoma dentatum 119 

Esophagus, Anatomy of 69 

Esophagus, Dilatation of 87 

Esophagus, Constriction of 86 

Esophagus, Inflammation of 88 

Esophagus, Malformations of 86 

Esophagus, Perforation of 87 

Esophagus, Tumors of 89 



INDKX 



369 



Estrum, Age of 359 

Estruni, Occurrence of 16 

Ether 62 

Fallopian tubes, Malformation of 201 

Farrowing _ 17 

Farrowing dates 16 

Farrowing, Difficulties in 18 

Farrowing houses 16, 17 

Fat and carbohydrate concentrates 35 

Fatty changes in the heart 257 

Fatty changes in the kidney 180 

Fatty changes in the liver 129 

Fatty changes in muscles 229 

Feed and water in diagnosis 50 

Feeding garbage 37 

Feeding, Requirements for 34 

Feeding, Success depends upon 22 

Feeds and feeding 31 

Female genital organs, Anatomy of. .360 

Flea infestation 248 

Foot and mouth disease 341 

Foot sore , 228 

Foreign bodies in liver 126 

Foreign bodies in stomach 90 

Foreign bodies in tongue 77 

Freezing 242 

Gall-stones 130 

Garbage feeding - 37 

Garbage poisoning 114 

Gastritis, Catarrhal 94 

Gastritis, Chronic 97 

Gastritis, Croupous 96 

Gastritis, Phlegnu)nous 96 

Gastro-enteritis 109 

(lencrative organs, Male 196 

Genital organs, Anatomy of female 360 

Genital organs of boar 174 

Genital organs of sow 175 

Gestation, Period of 17, 360 

Gigantorhynchus hirudinaceus 121 

Glossitis 77 

Glycogenic infiltration of the liver 130 

Grade-ljreeding 12 

Hair balls 90 

Hamj)shire _ 28 

Heart, Dilatation of 258 

Heart, Examination of 48 

Heart, Fatty changes in 257 

Heart, Hemorrhages in 257 



Heart, Parasites of 259 

Heart, Tumors of 258 

Heatstroke 264 

Hematemesis 92 

Hematopinus 248 

Hematuria , 188 

Hemorrhage into the bladder 192 

Hemorrhage in the heart 257 

Hemorrhage of intestines 101 

Hemorrhage of the kidneys 178 

Hemorrhage of ovary 200 

Hemorrhage of stomach 92 

Hemorrhage of uterus 202 

Hemorrhage, Pulmonary 159 

Hemorrhagic septicemia 301 

Hemo-thorax 169 

Hepatic hyperemia 132 

Hepatic jjarasites 137 

Hepatic tumors 137 

Hepatitis 132 

Hepatitis, Acute interstitial 135 

Hepatitis, Acute parenchymatous 133 

Hepatitis, Ciironic interstitial 135 

Hepatitis, Necrotic 321 

Hepatitis, Suppurative 133 

Herd lioar. Care of 14 

Herd boar, Selection of 13 

Hernia, Scrotal 352 

History, Im}>ortance in diagnosis 46 

H. m" C 62 

Hog bacon 28 

Hog cholera 270 

Hog house, Mississijipi 40 

Hog house. The 39 

Hog, Lard 24 

Hogs, Number in U. S 23 

Hogs, Number of ])ure-l)red 23 

Hydronephrosis 177 

Hydrothorax 168 

Hyperemia of the liver 132 

Hyperemia of stonuich 94 

Hypodermic syringe. Administration 

with 60 

Hysterectomy 364 

Hysterotomy „ 364 

Icterus 128 

Impetigo 243 

Inbreeding 12 

Infectious necrotic enteritis 308 

Infectious jiiieumonia 22 



170 



INDEX 



Intestinal necrohacillosis 315 

Intestinal parasites 116 

Intestinal tumors 122 

Intestine, Emphysema of 105 

Intestine, Hemorrhage of ...101 

Intestine, Inflammation of 105 

Intestine, Malformation of 101 

Intestine, Obstruction of 103 

Intestines, Anatomy of 71 

Intestines, Dilatation of 104 

Jaundice 128 

Kidneys, Congestion of 181 

Kidneys, Dropsy of 177 

Kidneys, Fatty changes in 180 

Kidneys, Hemorrhage of 178 

Kidneys, Inflammation of 181 

Kidneys, Malformation of 177 

Kidneys, Parasites of 190 

Kidneys, Tumors of 190 

Lard hog 21< 

Laryngeal tumors 153 

Larj'ngitis, Catarrhal 151 

Laryngitis, Croupous 152 

Larynx, Anatomy of 147 

Leuliemia 261 

Leukorrhea 204 

Lightning stroke 264 

Line-l)reeding 12 

Lips, Inflammation of 75 

Lips, Malformation of 75 

IJps, Tumors of 76 

IJver, Amaloid changes in 130 

Liver, Anatomy of 73 

Liver, Cloudy swelling 129 

Liver, Fatty changes in 129 

Liver, Foreign bodies in 126 

Liver, Glycogenic infiltration of the. ...130 

Liver, Hyperemia of 132 

Liver, Inflammation of 132 

Liver, Malformations of 126 

Liver, Parasites of 137 

Liver, Rupture of 127 

Liver, Tumors of 137 

Lockjaw 343 

Lousiness 248 

Lvmgs, Anatomj' of 147 

Lungs, Collapse of 158 

Lungs, Edema of 159 

Lungs, Emphysema of 158 



Lungs, Hemorriiage of 159 

Lungs, Inflammation of 161 

Lungs, Parasites of 168 

Lungs, Tumors in 167 

Male generative organs. Diseases of 196 

Malignant catarrh 150 

Malignant edema 325 

Mammary abscesses 206 

Mammary glands, Ablation of 357 

Mammarj' glands. Inflammation of ...205 

Mammary glands, Injuries to 205 

Mammary tumors 208 

Mammitis, Actinomycotic 207 

Mammitis, Botryomycotic 207 

Mammitis, Catarrhal 205 

Mammitis, Parenciiymatous 205 

Manunitis, Tuberculous 208 

Mange 249 

Mange, Demodetic . .- 252 

Mange, Red 252 

Mange, Sarcoptic 249 

Mating, Age for 13 

Measles 243 

Measly pork 237 

Medication 59 

Mercury poisoning Ill 

Metastrongylus apri 156, 168 

Metritis ..'. 202 

Metritis and Retained Placenta 213 

Milk, Composition of sow's 176 

Mixed bacterin 316 

Mole, Pigmented 246 

Moutii, Anatomy of 65 

Mouth, Injuries of 75 

Mule-foot' 27 

Muscles, Fatty changes in 229 

Muscuhu- rlieumatism 229 

Nasal catarrh 150 

Nasal cavity, Anatomy of 146 

Nasal discharge 49 

Nasal tumors 151 

Navel ill 214 

Necrohacillosis 317 

Necrohacillosis, Intestinal 315 

Necrohacillosis of the skin 245 

Necrohacillosis, Unusual forms of 323 

Necrosis of the Spleen 261 

Necrotic dermatitis 522 

Necrotic enteritis 320 

Necrotic enteritis. Infectious 308 



INDEX 



371 



Necrotic hepatitis 321 

Necrotic pneumonia 320 

Necrotic riiinitis 320 

Necrotic splenitis 321 

Necrotic stomatitis 319 

Necrotic vaginitis 322 

Necrotic vulvitis 322 

Nephritis 181 

Nephritis, Acute interstitial 184 

Nephritis, Acute parenchymatous 182 

Nephritis, Chronic 185 

Nepliritis, Ciironio JTiterstitial 185 

Nephi-itis, Purulent 184i 

Nervous disorders 51, 263 

Night shade poisoning 113 

Nose bleed 148 

Nose, Injuries of 148 

Obstetrics 358 

Obstruction of intestines ..103 

Omphalophebitis 214 

Oophoritis 200 

Orchitis 197 

Organs of locomotion, Injuries to 228 

Organs of locomotion, Malformations 

of 228 

Ornithodorus megnini 255 

Osteomalacia 232 

Osteomyelitis, Purulent 233 

Ovarian cysts .— 200 

Ovarian tumors 201 

Ovaries, Injuries to 199 

Ovaritis 200 

Ovary, Hemorrhage of 200 

Ovary, Inflammation of ...200 

Ovary, Malformation of 199 

Pancreas, Anatomy of 73 

Pancreas, Fatty necrosis of 142 

Pancreas, Tumors of 142 

Papilloma 245 

Paralysis in Pigs 266 

Parasites following castration 351 

Parasites, Intestinal 116 

Parasites of the brain 269 

Parasites of the heart 259 

Parasites of the kidney 190 

Parasites of the liver 137 

Parasites of the peritoneum 144 

Parasites of the skin 246 

Parasites of the stomach 100 

Parasites of the testicles 198 



Parasites of the tongue 79 

Parasites, Puhnonary 168 

Parasitic pneumonia 19 

Paratyphoid infection 315, 324 

Parotid glands, Injuries of 82 

Parotitis '. 82 

Parturition 361 

Parturition, Difficult 361 

Penis, Injuries to 199 

Penis, Malformations of 199 

Peptic ulcers 93 

Perforation of the esophagus 87 

Pericardial tumors 258 

Pericarditis 258 

Peritoneum, Inflammation of 143 

Peritoneum, Injuries of the 142 

Peritonevmi, Parasites of 144 

Peritoneum, Tumors of 144 

Peritonitis 143 

Pharyngitis , 84 

Pharynx, Anatomy of 68 

Pharynx, Injuries of 83 

Pharynx, Paralysis of 85 

Pharynx, Tumors of 86 

Phenol poisoning m 

Phlebitis 260 

Phosphorous poisoning 110 

Phtliiriasis 248 

Pig, Care of suckling 18 

Pig eating sows 18, 89 

Pig scour 18, 220 

Pigs, Classification of 20 

Pigs, Identification of pure-bred 20 

Pigs, Paralysis in , 266 

Pigs, Sore mouth in 225 

Pigs, Weaning time 20 

Pleura, Inflammation of 170 

Pleura, Tumors of 171 

Pleurisy, Acute 170 

Pleurisy, Chronic 170 

Pleuro-pneumonia 168 

Pneumonia, Catarrhal 161, 307 

Pneumonia, Chronic 166 

Pneumonia, Croupous 162 

Pneumonia, Gangrenous 165 

Pneumonia, Infectious 22 

Pneumonia, Interstitial 166 

Pneumonia, Necrotic 320 

Pneumonia, Parasitic 19 

Pneumonia, Purulent 164 

Pneumonia, Septic 165 

Pneumonia, Verminous 307 



INDEX 



Pneumo-thoi-ax 168, 169 

Poisoning, Belladonna (Deadly night 

shade) ' .....113 

Poisoning, Caustic potash, soda 110 

Poisoning, Cocklehur 112 

Poisoning, Cotton-seed meal 116 

Poisoning, Cryptogamic 115 

Poisoning, Garbage 114 

Poisoning, Phenol (Carbolic acid) Ill 

Poisoning, Mercury (Corrosive 

sublimate) Ill 

Poisoning, Phosphorous 110 

Poisoning, Sodium cliloride 109 

Poland China, Characteristics of 24 

Polyarthritis 231 

Pork measles 237 

Pregnancy, Accidents of 365 

Pregnancy, Signs of 17 

Preputial concremeuts 199 

Preputial inflammation 199 

Preputial necrosis 322 

Prolapse of the anus 125 

Prolapse of the rectum 125 

Protein concentrates 35 

Puerperal eclampsia 266 

Pulmonary ascaridiasis 222 

Pulmonary strongylosis 156 

Pulse, Examination of v 48 

Puberty, Age of 359 

Pure-bred hogs. Number of 23 

Pyelonephritis .'. 187 

Pyemic arthritis 214 

Pyosalpinx 201 

Quarantine, Value of 44 

Rabies 339 

Rachitis 216 

Rectum, Prolapse of 125 

Renal calculi 180 

Respiration 147 

Respiratory disease. How recognized.... 49 

Restraint of swine 56 

Retained placenta 213 

Rheumatism, Articular 230 

Rheumatism, Muscular 229 

Rhinitis, Catarrhal 149 

Rhinitis, Infectious 150, 223 

Rhinitis, Necrotic 320 

Rickets 216 

Ringworm 255 

Rupture of liver 127 



Salivary glands, Anatomy of 65 

Salmonellosis 325 

Sanitation -...■. 37 

Sarcocystis miescheria 240 

Sarcomatosis 262 

Sarcoptes scabiei 249 

Sarcoptic mange 249 

Sarcosporidiosis 240 

Sclerosis 135 

Scour 18 

Scour in pigs 220 ■ 

Screw-worm 198, 351 I 

Screw-worms in the prepuce 199 

Scrotal hernia 352 

Scurvy 81 

Self-feeders 32, 33 • 

Septicemia, Hemorrhagic 301 

Serum, Clear 295 

Serum production. Anti-hog cholera. ...293 

Siphonaptera 248 

Skin, Congestion of 47 

Skin, Freezing of 242 

Skin, Henuirrhage from the 242 

Skin, Inflammation of ...' 245 

Skin, Injuries to 241 

Skin Pfirasites 246 

Skin, Tumors of the 245 

Snifl'les 223 

Snout, Anatomy of 146 

Sodium chloride poisoning 109 

Sore feet 228 

Sore mouth in pigs 225 

Sow, Brood , 15 

Sow, Genital organs of 175 

Sow's milk. Composition of 176 

Sows, Pig eating 18, 89 

Sows, Unsexing 356 

Spasm of the diaphragm 171 

Spaying 356 

Spinal cord. Malformation of 263 

Spirocheta suis 275 

Spleen, Hypertrophy of 261 

Spleen, Necrosis of 261 

Spleen, Tumors of 262 • 

Splenitis, Necrotic 321 

Stenosis of tj-e brcnchi 154 

Stenosis of the esophagus 86 

Stenosis of the trachea 153 

Stejihanurosis 138 

Stephanurosis, Pulmonary 168 

Stephaiiurus dentatum 145 

Sterilitv, Causes of 212 



INDEX 



37; 



Sterility, Definition of 212 

Sterility, Occurrence of 212 

Sterility, Symptoms of 212 

Sterility, Treatment of .212 

Stock hogs. Care of 20 

Stock hogs. Immunization of 21 

Stock hogs. Selection of 21 

Stnck hogs. Shipment of 20 

Stomach, Anatomy of 69 

Stomach, Anemia of 92 

Stomach, Dilatation of 98 

Stomach, Foreign bodies in 90 

Stomach, Hemorrhage of 92 

Stomach, Hyperemia of 94 

Stomach, Inflammation of 94 

Stomach, Malformations of 90 

Stomach, Parasites of 100 

Stomach, Tumors of 99 

Stomatitis 79 

Stomatitis, Catarrhal 80 

Stomatitis in Sucklings 225 

Stomatitis, Necrotic 81, 319 

Stomatitis, Phlegmonous 80 

Stomatitis, Ulcerative 81 

Stomatitis, Vesicular 81 

Stricture of the urethra 195 

Strongylosis of the bronchi 156 

Strongylosis of the lungs 156 

Sucklings, Stomatitis in 225 

Sunburn t:: 241 

Sunstroke 264 

Swine erysipelas 338 

Swine plague 2'J, 301 

Swine plague. Symptoms of 23 

Swine, Restraint of 56 

Swirls, Removal of 357 

Taenia Echlnococcus 140, 144, 168, 190 

Taenia marginata 141 

Taenia solium 190 

Tamworth 30 

Teeth, Eruption of 67 

Teeth, Injuries of 82 

Teeth, Irregularities of 82 

Temperature, A'ariations of 48 

Testicles, Inflammation of 197 

Testicles, Malformations of 196 

Testicles, Parasites of the 198 

Testicular tumors 197 

Tetanus : 343 

Thumps 171 

Thread worm infestation of the skin. -255 



Thymus gland. Anatomy of 147 

Thyroid gland, Anatomy of 147 

Thvroid gland, Defective development 

of ; 19 

Tick infestation 255 

Tongue, Anatomy of 65 

Tongiie, Foreign bodies in 77 

Tongue, Inflammation of 77 

Tongue, Injuries of 77 

Tongue, Parasites of 79 

Tongue, Tumors of 78 

Tonsillitis 83 

Tonsils, Inflammation of 83 

Trachea, Anatomy of 147 

Trachea, Malformations of 153 

Trachea, Stenosis of 153 

Tracheal tumors 153 

Tracheitis - 153 

Tracheitis, Croupous 152 

Trichinella spiralis 121, 234 

Trichinosis 233 

Trichobezoars 90 

Trichocephalus crenatus 120 

Tumors of the bladder 195 

Tumors of the esophagus - 89 

Tumors of the heart 258 

Tumors, Intestinal 122 

Tumors of the kidneys - 190 

Tumors of the larynx 153 

Tumors of the lips 76 

Tumors of the liver 137 

Ti mors in the lungs 167 

Tumors, Nasal 151 

Tumors of the ovary 201 

Tumors, Pericardial - 258 

Tumors of the peritoneum 144 

Tximors of the pharynx 86 

Tumors of the pleura 171 

Tumors of the skin 245 

Tumors of the spleen 262 

Tumors of the stomach - 99 

Tumors of the testicles 197 

Tumors of the tongue 78 

Tumors of the trachea 153 

Tumors of the udder 208 

Tumors of the uterus 204 

Tuberculosis 329 

Tuberculosis, Prevalence among swine..330 
Tuberculosis of the udder 208 

Udder, Tumors of 208 

Ulcer, Button '. 312 



374 



INDEX 



Ulcers, Peptic 93 

Urachus, Persistent 214 

Uremia 188 

Ureters, Malformation of 191 

Urethra, Inflammation of 195 

Urethra, Injuries of the 195 

Urethra, Malformations of the 195 

Urethra, Stricture of the 195 

Urethritis 195 

Urine, Blood in the 188 

Urinary organs. Anatomy of 174 

Uro-genital disturbances. 51 

Urticaria 242 

Uterine hemorrhage 202 

Uterine tumors 204 

Uterus, Inflammation of 202 

Uterus, Injuries to the 201 

Uterus, Malformations of 201 



Vagina, Inflammation of 204 

Vagina, Injuries to 204 

Vagina, Malformations of the 204 

Vaginal necrosis 322 

Vaginitis - 204 

Valvular insufficiency 260 

Ventilation 41 

Verminous pneumonia 307 

Viciousness 263 

A'omition 91 

Vulva, Injuries to 204 

Vulva, Necrobacillosis of 204 

Vulvar necrosis 322 

Wart 245 

Weaning, Age for 19 

Vorkshire, The large 30 



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